From the history of Russian metallurgy. The first metallurgical manufactories of the Tula region Who made the Urals the iron ridge of the Russian Empire
310 years ago, on June 4, 1705, Tsar Peter Alekseevich allowed Nikita Demidov to build metallurgical plants in the Kungur region in the Urals. From that time on, the rise of the Demidov family, famous industrialists and landowners, began. The Demidovs became one of the founders of the mining and metallurgical industry in Russia.
From Russian metallurgy
Iron production in Rus' has been known since ancient times. Archaeologists have found in areas adjacent to Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Vyshgorod, Murom, Ryazan, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Smolensk, Pskov, Novgorod and other ancient Russian cities, as well as Lake Ladoga and other areas, hundreds of places with the remains of melting pots, cheese furnaces (the so-called . "wolf pits") and corresponding tools for metallurgy production.
Metallurgy was also developed in Scythia, the direct successor of which was Rus'. In one of the “wolf pits” dug for metal smelting near the village of Podmokloye in the southern part of the Moscow region coal basin, a coin dated to the beginning of the 9th century was discovered. That is, metallurgy in Rus' existed even before the introduction of Christianity. The surnames of the Russian people also speak of the widespread spread of metallurgy in Rus': Koval, Kovalenko, Kovalchuk, Kovalev, Kuznetsov. The mythology and folklore of the Russian people, where the blacksmith is one of the central figures fighting evil and representing heavenly forces, also confirm the fact of the development of metallurgy in Ancient Rus'.
To produce metal, two main factors are needed: fuel and raw materials. The main fuel at that time was charcoal. The highest quality charcoal was obtained from relatively rare and hardwood species - oak, beech and hornbeam, as well as birch. Iron smelting required a huge amount of wood: processing one ton of ore required almost 40 cubic meters of wood. A more technologically advanced replacement for charcoal, coke, appeared relatively recently (two hundred years ago). An interesting fact is that initially it was the absence of significant forests that prevented England from becoming the main metal producer in Europe. The increase in iron smelting in England destroyed almost all large tracts of forests.
There was fuel in Rus'. Since ancient times, forest has been the main fuel and building material on our land. But there were problems with the hardware. There is no accessible high-quality iron ore on the Russian Plain. The Kursk magnetic anomaly was discovered only in the 20th century and its depth is 200-600 meters. The technologies of that time did not allow the development of such deposits. Humanity knows: magnetic iron ore (more than 70% iron), red iron ore (55-60%), brown iron ore (limonite, 35-55%) and spar iron ore (40%). Magnetite and hematite lie deep on the Russian Platform, but there is no spar iron ore at all. Therefore, only brown iron ore remained. The raw material is bad, but its advantage is that it was almost everywhere. “Bog iron” (limonite) was mined in peat bogs. And the swamps were located among the then mighty forests of Rus'. Thus, metallurgy could be developed everywhere.
True, Europeans were luckier. There were rich deposits of iron and other metals in the mountains in Germany and the Czech Republic. Mass mining of metal ores by mining in the German lands began already in the 13th century. By the beginning of the 16th century, Germany had a powerful metallurgical industry that produced basic metals (iron, copper, silver and gold). In the 16th century, massive exports of iron and copper from Sweden began. Sweden had rich deposits of iron ore and for two centuries it firmly occupied first place in the supply of iron and copper. Until, thanks to the Urals, Russia has not surpassed it.
“Swamp iron” is formed almost everywhere where there is a transition from oxygen-containing soils to an oxygen-free layer (at the junction of two layers). In swamps, this boundary is located very close to the surface; iron nodules can be dug with a shovel, removing a thin layer of vegetation and soil. Deposits of such iron are classic placers and can be developed with a minimum of effort.
The cheese-making process used by the metallurgists of Ancient Rus' required iron-rich ore. And limonite ore is poor. Therefore, the swamp ore going into smelting was necessarily enriched. Methods of beneficiation of ore included: drying, roasting, crushing, washing and sifting. Thus, the availability of fuel and raw materials, as well as enrichment technologies, led to the fact that Rus' has been a country of gunsmiths since ancient times. We can safely say that Russian metallurgy allowed Rus' to withstand hundreds of wars of varying intensity for a thousand years, from local conflicts to full-scale regional wars. Military production has been the core of the Russian state since ancient times.
“Swamp iron” was the basis of Russian metallurgy until the 17th century. At the end of the Old Russian state, entire regions appeared that specialized in iron production. In the modern Kursk region, iron was produced in the city of Rimov. One of the largest centers of metallurgy was in the Novgorod land. Iron was produced in Ustyug Zhelezny (Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya). Bog iron was mined in the area of Yama, Koporye, Oreshek, and brought to Novgorod. At the same time, Novgorod also bought iron through Hanseatic merchants in Germany and Sweden. In the 16th century, Ustyuzhna Zheleznopolskaya remained the largest center of metalworking and weapons making in Muscovite Rus'; iron was also produced in Tula, Tikhvin, Olonets and Zaonezhye.
Mining of non-ferrous metals on the territory of Rus' was virtually absent until the 18th century. There were small sources of copper in the Olonets region and Pechora, but they could not saturate the domestic market. In Novgorod they knew about the sources of silver in the Urals, but it was not possible to create production then. Therefore, the bulk of non-ferrous metals came to Rus' from Europe. Not only iron, but also the bulk of lead, tin and copper came through Novgorod.
It is clear that this affected the military-strategic position of Rus'. Iron and copper were the metals of war. As the country developed, more and more metal was needed. The Western opponents of Rus' - Sweden and Poland - took advantage of the fact that the main flow of metal to the Russian state went through them and periodically, for the purpose of political pressure and military weakening of Moscow, limited imports. Therefore, the attempts of the Russian government, starting with Ivan the Terrible and continuing with Pyotr Alekseevich, to “open a window to Europe,” that is, to bring part of the Baltic states under their control, were associated with the desire to achieve free trade in the Baltic.
When the British first appeared in the Russian North under Ivan Vasilyevich, Moscow was primarily interested in the possibility of supplying iron and other metals, bypassing the traditional sea route along the Baltic Sea and the land route through Poland. The British then did not see a threat from Russia, they were interested in Russian goods and passage to Persia along the Volga route, so the merchants of the “Moscow Campaign” began to actively sell non-ferrous metals and weapons to Moscow. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, Arkhangelsk continued to be an important center for metal supplies to Russia. They were supplied by English and Dutch merchants.
Under the first Romanovs, Moscow actively purchased high-quality steel and non-ferrous metals, as well as finished cannons and gun barrels. However, this was not beneficial for Russia. Foreign iron was expensive. If at the beginning of the 17th century one pound (16 kg) of Russian iron cost the manufacturer about 60 kopecks, then the cost of a pound of Swedish iron reached 1 ruble. 30 kopecks A pound of imported iron wire cost even more - up to 3 rubles. For comparison. An ordinary horse then cost about 2 rubles, and a serf could be bought for 3-5 rubles. A “strip of damask steel” (they were used for the production of sabers) cost about 3 rubles; they were imported from Holland and Persia. Copper was brought by English, Dutch, Danish and Swedish merchants. Its cost was 1.5-3 rubles, and roofing copper (for church domes) - 6 rubles. Silver and gold were also imported. Silver at the beginning of the 17th century cost about 450 rubles. pood, gold - about 3300 rubles. Tin, lead and copper were brought from Germany.
However, the main supplier of high-quality iron for Russia at that time was Sweden. Russia bought almost only metals from Sweden. It is clear that as relations between Russia and Sweden worsened, the situation became increasingly dangerous. The Swedes captured Russian lands in the Baltic, pushed back the Poles, turning the Baltic Sea into the “Swedish Lake”. Sweden's powerful metallurgical base made it a powerful military power that threatened Russia's future.
"Swamp Iron"
Development of metallurgy under the Romanovs
As soon as Russia recovered from the Troubles, the Russian government tried to create its own metallurgy. In 1632, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich gave the Dutch merchant Vinius a charter to establish an ironworks in the Tula region. Production was based on the Didilovsky mines. It was no longer “swamp iron”, but deposits of high-quality iron ore near the village of Didilovo. The issue with the labor force was resolved by assigning an entire volost to the enterprise, and this is how the category of assigned peasants began to emerge. In addition, “willing people”, that is, civilian workers, also worked at the enterprise. Vinius's enterprise became a real manufactory using machines.
Soon, Vinius was joined by the Dutch merchant Philemon Akema and the Dane from Hamburg, Peter Marcelis. They built three more manufactories in the Tula region (“Gorodishche Plants”). Not only Russians worked at the enterprises, but also craftsmen invited from Europe. Marcelis and Akema built several more iron factories on the Skniga River (“Kashira factories”). These iron enterprises became the core of metallurgy in Russia. However, the attempt to launch copper production in Karelia and get rid of expensive imported metal failed. Due to small copper reserves, high labor intensity of work and significant costs associated with this, the plant was considered unprofitable and closed. True, in the 1680s they were able to open five metallurgical manufactories using water energy in Karelia (“Olonets factories”). Under Peter, these enterprises began to specialize in the interests of the Baltic Fleet.
Andrei Denisovich Vinius, engraving by Cornelius Vischer, 1650
In 1693, the first iron smelter using water energy began operating in southern Russia. Metal from the Lipetsk plant was supplied to Voronezh, where Peter built the Azov flotilla. In 1703-1705 Production here was expanded, and the Lipa Iron Works emerged. They became the metallurgical base of the Azov flotilla and in the first years of the Northern War provided the country with half of the metal needed for military production.
However, this was not enough to create a metallurgical base capable of making Russia an advanced European power. "Swamp metal" and rare surface deposits of iron ore on the Russian Plain could not provide sufficient production. A qualitative breakthrough was needed. And only the Urals could provide it. Even in ancient times, the Urals were the center of metallurgy. Novgorodians have long discovered “Chud mines” on its slopes.
The first developments in the Urals began in the 17th century. But the region’s remoteness from the main Russian urban centers and the small Russian population prevented the development of the Urals. Only at the end of this century did Tsar Peter Alekseevich order the beginning of regular geological surveys in the Urals. In 1700, the Nevyansk blast furnace and ironworks were built on the Neiva River. Then an iron plant was erected on the site of the current city of Kamensk-Uralsky and a metallurgical plant in Alapaevsk. In 1723, the Yekaterinburg State Factory was founded.
Thus, under Peter, they created the basis of an industrial base in the Urals. Then the Urals would become the most important economic region of the Russian Empire for a long time. The region was an excellent place for the development of metallurgy. There were rich deposits of high-quality ores quite close to the surface, forests for charcoal production and numerous rivers, which made it possible to use water energy to operate machines. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Urals had already been populated, providing factories with labor. Already in 1750, Russia had 72 iron and 29 copper smelters. In the 18th century, the Ural industrial region would produce more than 80% of all iron and 95% of copper in all of Russia. Thanks to the Ural plants, Russia got rid of external dependence and itself became a major supplier of metal. The export of Russian metal began already under Peter I, and in the 1770s Russia supplied more iron to England than Sweden. For most of a century, the Russian Empire was the largest producer of the metal on the planet and its leading exporter to Western Europe. A powerful metallurgical base became one of the prerequisites for Russia's military and political successes in the 18th century.
Monument to Nikita Demidov and Peter I in Nevyansk
Early stages of metallurgy development
Despite the names of the periods of evolution of primitive society, metallurgy began its development in the Stone Age. The most ancient human efforts in metalworking are dated by historians to the sixth century BC. Corresponding archaeological finds indicating this were discovered on the Iberian Peninsula, in the Balkans (in Serbia and Bulgaria), and in British Stonehenge. True, it is not always easy to establish the age of all these finds.
Of course, the ancient man carried out his first experiments in metallurgy with low-melting metals: silver, tin, and also iron of meteorite origin. Processing metals with higher melting temperatures was simply impossible in those distant times. So, in the 3rd millennium BC. The Egyptians learned to make quite good weapons from meteorite iron, which were valued far beyond the borders of Ancient Egypt. These durable blades were soon called “heavenly daggers.”
About 5,500 years ago, humanity entered a new era of its development - the Bronze Age. This transition was marked by several important achievements. Firstly, man learned to extract tin from rocks. Secondly, he managed to obtain a completely new alloy - . However, the further development of metallurgy required more technologically advanced and more complex processes, and therefore slowed down for more than two millennia.
It is generally accepted that it was first revealed from the body to the Hittites, a people who lived in Asia Minor and were mentioned several times in the Bible. This happened around 1200 BC. It is from this date that the Iron Age begins in the development of society.
Traces of the development of ferrous metallurgy can be seen in various historical cultures: in Ancient Greece and Rome, Egypt and Anatolia, Carthage, Ancient China and India. It would not be amiss to note that many of the techniques and methods of metal processing were invented by the Chinese, and only then they were all mastered by Europeans. We are talking, in particular, about the smelting, invention or hydraulic hammer. But the leaders in the field of metal forging and mining, as researchers recently found out, were the ancient Romans.
History of the development of metallurgy in Africa, Southeast Asia and Australia
How did it develop in other regions of the Earth? It is known that in the second half of the 1st millennium BC, tools made of cast iron were already actively used in Southeast Asia. At first these were bimetallic products, and a little later they were made entirely of iron.
The population of Ancient China was also familiar with bimetallic things. Iron of meteorite origin was used for their production. The first information about such products dates back to the 8th century BC. But by the middle of the first millennium BC, the production of real iron began in this part of the world. It was the Chinese who were the first to master the technique of producing cast iron, and they did it much earlier than the Europeans.
The African region also made its significant contribution to the global process of metallurgy development. It was in Africa that a cylindrical forge was invented, which was not known to other peoples of the world. Many historians are confident that Africans learned to produce iron completely independently, without any outside influences. About 2600 years ago, iron had already appeared in a number of countries and territories of the “dark continent”: in Sudan, Libya and Nubia. Some African tribes, as researchers suggest, even “jumped” from the Stone Age - straight into the Iron Age.
In general, iron production in Africa was fully developed within the second half of the 1st millennium BC. It is curious that copper production was mastered here even a little later. And if jewelry was made from copper on this continent, then only tools were made from iron.
As for the “southern land” - the Australian mainland, here ferrous metallurgy began to develop only during the period of the Great Geographical Discoveries (in the 16th-17th centuries).
Features of the development of metallurgy in America
The New World was characterized by the existence of several centers of early metallurgy. One of these hotbeds was in the Andean mountains, which are famous for their rich ore minerals. The first metal here was gold. In addition, silver products were produced in the Andes. On the territory of the modern state of Peru in the second half of the 2nd millennium BC. An alloy of silver and copper was obtained - tumbaga, which became extremely popular in South America.
In Central America, people became acquainted with metal only in the first millennium BC. Moreover, he was brought here. The Mayan tribes mastered the craft of metal production only by the 7th century AD. However, by this time their civilization was already approaching its decline.
The first metal in North America was copper. Then they learned how to make iron here (at first meteorite, and a little later - flash). This happened in the first millennium BC, and the western regions of the continent developed much faster in this area.
Invention of the cheese-making process
One of the most ancient methods of obtaining iron is called cheese-blowing (from the words “blow” and “raw”). Furnaces were dug directly into the ground, usually on the slopes of the terrain. Damp (cold) air was blown into small furnaces containing iron ore. At the early stages of development of this method, air draft was natural, but later it was replaced by artificial one - air was forced into the furnace.
The bottom of the furnaces was filled with coal, and ore was placed on top in layers. The latter, during its combustion, released oxide - a gas that performed the function of reducing iron oxides. It is worth noting that with the cheese-blowing method, the iron was not so much melted as “cooked,” since this process created a temperature insufficient for melting iron (about 1200 degrees Celsius). Based on this, “boiled” iron in the form of a spongy mass resembling dough was located at the bottom of the furnace. This mass, as a rule, included numerous impurities and coal residues (however, in some cases, the slag was removed from the furnace through a special chute).
In order to produce any products from such a substrate, it was necessary to first remove foreign impurities from the kritsa. This was done using forging - cold and hot. Ultimately, it was possible to obtain screaming iron for later use.
The “invention” of the cheese-making method of iron production, as historians suggest, occurred during the direct smelting of copper. As is known, this process was accompanied by the addition of not only coal and the corresponding ore, but also hematites to the smelting furnaces. And it was precisely under this scenario that, most likely, man received the first shouts of iron. It is quite possible that copper smelting furnaces simply gradually turned into cheese-blowing furnaces.
It so happens that it is much easier to obtain copper than iron. Even though copper and tin ores are much less common in nature than iron ores. That is why the cheese-blowing process turned out to be a very important stage in the development of ferrous metallurgy. This technology was constantly improved: by improving the blowing process or increasing the size of the furnaces. However, all these improvements did not solve the main problem: flash iron contained practically no carbon, which means it could not compete with bronze. Things made from it were not hard enough compared to products made from bronze. It is for this reason that iron was used to a greater extent for making jewelry in those days. Something simply had to change in iron production.
Mastering the technology of carburization and hardening of iron
The next round of progress in the development of metallurgy was the emergence of the so-called “cementation” technology, as well as the hardening and thermal tempering of iron. The beginning of a full-fledged Iron Age is associated with the development of these three processes.
Cementation refers to the process of artificially saturating the grain with carbon. This technology was mastered by man first. Various substances have been used to cement rocky iron. At first, the mass was calcined in bone charcoal, and later in other substances with a high carbon content. The mastery of cementation technology gave man the opportunity to obtain the first, albeit very primitive, samples of steel.
“Cemented” iron was already superior to bronze in its hardness. In this case, the degree of saturation of the kritsa with carbons depended on the heating temperature of the iron.
Following the discovery of the cementation technique, the hardening effect was discovered. The man was surprised to discover that iron saturated with carbon and cooled becomes even stronger. For such cooling, water, snow was used, or the iron was simply left in the open cold air. There was an effect even in the latter case.
Both processes described above were most likely discovered by man by accident. It is unlikely that the ancient blacksmiths could explain the true nature of these processes. This is evidenced by the found written sources of those times. In particular, you can find very interesting moments in them. Thus, the fact that the strength of iron increases during hardening was often explained by fantastic or mystical theories. For example, in a chronicle from Asia Minor dating back to the ninth century BC, one can find a colorful method of hardening iron by “plunging a dagger” into the body of a “muscular slave.” It was the strength of the slave, according to the author of this text, that made the metal harder. No less interesting is a separate fragment taken from Homer’s “Odyssey,” where burning out a Cyclops’ eye is compared to plunging a red-hot iron cleaver into ice water. Moreover, Homer refers to the latter procedure as “the ax treatment.” Based on this, the ancient Greeks probably did not understand the nature of the metal hardening process, but gave it a special, magical meaning.
Hardened steel has one significant drawback - it is excessive fragility. The discovery of the technology of thermal tempering of iron made it possible to significantly reduce it. This technology consists of heating products to 727 degrees Celsius (this is the limiting temperature of deformation of the iron structure).
One should not think that the development of technologies for carburizing, tempering and hardening of iron was a one-time process. In fact, these processes lasted about a thousand years! But it was the discovery and improvement of these three technologies that once and for all put an end to the irreconcilable competition between bronze and iron.
Development of metallurgy in the Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, smelting furnaces had already changed significantly. Firstly, they reached two to three meters in height. And secondly, they worked using water energy: blowers set in motion special pipes or large water wheels.
In medieval Europe, the so-called “stukofen” were widespread - huge and tall furnaces, which brought ferrous metallurgy to a new stage in its development. These furnaces were equipped with a 4-meter pipe to enhance traction and water engines. Sometimes the bellows were driven by several workers. The glandular critsa were removed from such a furnace once a day.
The history of the invention and penetration of stukofen into Europe is interesting. They were invented in India in the first millennium BC. Then the new invention came to neighboring China, and from there, in the 7th century AD, to the Arab world. In the 13th century, the Arabs brought these miracle stoves to the south of the Iberian Peninsula, from where they quickly spread throughout Europe.
In terms of productivity and technical parameters, the stukofen was head and shoulders above its predecessors – cheese-blowing ovens. The smelting temperature in it was higher, which made it possible to obtain high-grade cast iron. The stukofen could produce more than two centners of iron per day. True, cast iron from such an installation was, as a rule, unsuitable. The fact is that it ended up at the bottom of the furnace, mixing with slag. To clean it, forging was required, which cast iron did not lend itself to. At that time, no other methods of cleaning it were known.
Nevertheless, some peoples still managed to find use for even such “dirty” cast iron. Hindus, for example, made coffins from it for the dead. But in the Ottoman Empire, cannonballs were made from cast iron.
Invention of a new type of furnace - blauofen
Medieval metallurgists established an important pattern: the higher the melting temperature of the ore in the furnace, the more product (iron) can be obtained at the output. After this discovery, they began to try to modernize their stucco fans: increase the height of the pipes and set up an air preheating system. So in the 15th century, a new type of stove appeared in Europe - blauofen.
However, the modernized furnaces almost immediately unpleasantly surprised metallurgists. The yield of the final product actually increased, but at the same time, the amount of waste—unusable cast iron—increased by 20%. Dirty, or, as it was also called, “pork” iron, just solidified at the bottom of the new furnaces. Cast iron mixed with slag, as before, was absolutely unsuitable for casting. As a rule, it was used to produce sledgehammers, anvils and other rough equipment. True, cannonballs made from blauofen cast iron turned out to be of better quality.
Another positive aspect of the Blauofen is that the amount of steel around the edges of the iron core in these furnaces has increased significantly. Of course, this pleased the metallurgists. However, on the other hand, it was very, very difficult to separate such steel from screaming iron. And in this situation, different peoples took different paths in solving this complex problem.
Thus, in India, all efforts were devoted to improving forging technology in order to achieve a more uniform distribution of carbons in the product. And these efforts bore fruit - the Indians received damask steel - a very strong and elastic steel, from which first-class edged weapons were produced at that time. Bulat was also produced in Iran and Central Asia.
The Chinese and Europeans, unlike the Indians, were not at all interested in the quality, but in the quantity of the final product. Therefore, it was they who soon discovered the so-called conversion process, which had an incredibly strong influence on the development of metallurgy as a whole.
The emergence of blast furnaces
Up to 1,500 tons of high-quality cast iron per day - this was something medieval metallurgists never even dreamed of. But this became a daily norm with the advent of blast furnaces. Thanks to its large size, air preheating and mechanical blasting system, such a furnace was capable of extracting iron from the ore mass and converting it into cast iron. The latter came out in molten form. True, forging was still necessary. But now there was much less slag in the mass, and more iron. Another advantage of the blast furnace was its continuous operation. The installation operated around the clock, without stopping or cooling.
In the 18th century, another process was discovered in European metallurgy - puddling. It involved purifying cast iron in a furnace using gas obtained from the combustion of coal or other mineral fuel. By the way, in Ancient China they even produced steel using this method back in the 10th century. With this cleaning technique, ferrous particles collected in lumps. They were then welded in a forge or in a special rolling machine, and various iron blanks were obtained from them. The puddling method made it possible to increase iron productivity to 140 kg per hour.
Development of metallurgy in the 19th and 20th centuries
The next leap in the development of metallurgy occurred at the end of the 19th century. During this period, almost simultaneously, three completely new methods were introduced into metal production: open-hearth, Thomas and Bessemer. All these methods increased steel production enormously - up to six tons per hour.
Half a century later, even newer processes are being introduced into metallurgy. These are, in particular, continuous casting of steel and oxygen blasting. Blowing oxygen through molten metal in converter furnaces significantly accelerated the rate of chemical reactions.
History, as we know, moves in a spiral. This also applies to the history of industrial production. Thousands of years ago, people built cheese furnaces in the ground and obtained, using a one-step method, high-quality, corrosion-resistant iron with a small amount of impurities. And today, scientists have again returned to the technology of single-stage processes, developing a method of ore enrichment and steel production
“ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD FOR SCHOOLCHILDREN IN HISTORY 2016–2017 academic year. MUNICIPAL STAGE Grade 9 In tasks 1–3, give one correct answer. Answer..."
ALL-RUSSIAN OLYMPIAD FOR SCHOOLCHILDREN
IN HISTORY 2016–2017 academic year G.
MUNICIPAL STAGE
In tasks 1–3, give one correct answer. Enter your answer in the table
on the work form.
1. Which Arab traveler made in the 10th century. journey
to Volga Bulgaria and then compiled a description of the life of the peoples of Eastern
1) Avicenna 3) Ibn Fadlan
2) Rashid ad-Din 4) Ibn Battuta
2. In what year did the events described below take place?
“A nationwide struggle unfolded against the invaders. Patriotic journalism was spreading throughout the country (“New Tale of the Glorious Russian Kingdom”, etc.). In early spring, a militia was created. Its core was the detachments of Ryazan nobles, led by P. Lyapunov. The militia also included nobles, townspeople and peasants of the Volga region and the northeast of the country.”
1) 1604 3) 1612 2) 1611 4) 1617
3. The emergence of which city is associated with the metallurgical plant built on the orders of Peter I?
1) Bryansk 3) Magnitogorsk
2) Irkutsk 4) Lipetsk Total 3 points for tasks 1–3.
© SAOU DPO TsPM. Publication on the Internet or in print without the written consent of GAOU DPO TsPM is prohibited.
Municipal stage. Grade 9 In tasks 4–6, choose several correct answers from those proposed.
Enter your answers into the table on your worksheet.
4. Indicate the names of historical figures who were contemporaries of Alexander I.
1) Pyotr Petrovich Konovnitsyn
2) Gavriil Ivanovich Golovkin
3) Pyotr Alekseevich Palen
4) Alexander Ivanovich Kutaisov
5) Alexey Alexandrovich Kurbatov
6) Fedor Yurievich Romodanovsky
5. Which of the following terms are related to architecture?
1) zakomara 4) cinnabar
2) scan 5) portal
3) scapula 6) liturgy
6. Which of the names are related to the Cossack troops that existed in Russia?
1) Nizhny Novgorod 4) Yakut
2) Donskoe 5) Semirechenskoe
3) Astrakhan 6) Buzulukskoye Total 6 points for tasks 4–6.
© SAOU DPO TsPM. Publication on the Internet or in print without the written consent of GAOU DPO TsPM is prohibited.
All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in history 2016-2017 academic year. G.
Municipal stage. 9th grade
7. The list below presents legislative acts adopted under various rulers of Russia in the 18th–19th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the work form, and in the bottom line - the serial numbers of legislative acts that appeared under the corresponding ruler.
1) Letter of grant to the nobility
2) An institution for managing a large active army
3) statute of the Order of St. George the Victorious
4) Table of ranks
5) decree on the creation of the Governing Senate
6) decree on the liquidation of the Secret Expedition
7) decree on unified inheritance
8) decree on the establishment of the Little Russian Collegium instead of the hetman's rule in Little Russia
9) manifesto on the formation of the State Council Total 9 points.
8. The list below presents the names of cities and territories annexed to the Moscow Principality (Russian State) under various rulers in the 15th–16th centuries. Write down the names of the rulers in the top line of the table in the work form, and in the bottom line - the serial numbers of cities and territories annexed under the corresponding ruler.
1) Khanate of Kazan
2) Ugra land
3) Smolensk
4) Bashkiria
6) Novgorod
9) Astrakhan Khanate Total 9 points.
– – –
9. By what principle are the rows formed? Give the most accurate answer possible.
9.1. Grengam, Noteburg, Gangut, Helsingfors.
9.2. IN. Klyuchevsky, S.M. Soloviev, N.I. Kostomarov, N.M. Karamzin.
Total 4 points.
10. Place historical events in chronological order. Enter your answers into the table on your worksheet.
A) creation of the Kyiv metropolis
B) the final victory of Yaroslav the Wise over Svyatopolk
C) acceptance of the Yaroslavich Truth
D) reform of pagan cults
D) the death of Prince Boris
E) installation of Hilarion as Metropolitan Total 4 points.
11. Arrange the terms in the chronological order of their appearance. Enter your answers into the table on your worksheet.
A) military districts
B) provinces
B) Life Guards
D) military settlements
E) Sagittarius Total 4 points.
– – –
14. Fill in the gaps in the text. If necessary, with serial numbers, explanations are given about the nature of the required insertion. Enter the necessary words, names, dates under the corresponding numbers in the table placed in the work form.
In 1735, Russia decided to transfer (1 – name of the country) its Caspian provinces, conquered by Peter I during the (2 – name) campaign of 1722–1723. These provinces did not bring in any income, and maintaining an army and fortresses there burdened the treasury. Turkey, according to the (3 – name) treaty of 1724, recognized these provinces as Russian, but it did not want to put up with the success of its main competitor in Transcaucasia – (1). Therefore, the troops of the vassal Turkey (4 - the name of the state) went to the Caucasus, violating the borders of Russia. In response, the Russian Empire declared war on Turkey. Russia's ally in this war was (5).
In the fall of 1735, the corps under the leadership of General M.I. Leontyev tried to enter the territory (4), but the lack of roads and poor supply of the troops did not allow this.
The next year, the Russian army under the command of Field Marshal (6 - surname) crossed (7) - the isthmus separating the peninsula from the mainland - and captured the capital (4) - city (8). Then, fearing to be locked in (4) by the Tatar army returning from Transcaucasia, (6) he left the Crimean territory. In the summer of the same year, the Russians occupied fortress (9), and the following year - fortress (10).
On the initiative of the Turks, in the summer of 1737, trilateral peace negotiations began in Nemirov, but they soon reached a dead end, and the war continued. Russian troops won small victories. They won the largest battle in August 1739 under (11 – name), after which two days later they occupied the fortress (12). This event made such a deep impression on his contemporaries that (13 – surname) wrote his famous “Ode to the Taking (12).” In the same year, in (14 - name of the city), a peace treaty was concluded that ended this war. Unfortunately, it was disadvantageous for Russia, since under its terms it did not receive access to (15 - geographical object).
Total 9 points.
– – –
15. Look carefully at the map and complete the tasks below.
© SAOU DPO TsPM. Publication on the Internet or in print without the written consent of GAOU DPO TsPM is prohibited.
All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in history 2016-2017 academic year. G.
Municipal stage. 9th grade
1. Write who was the ally of the Russian troops in the battle that took place south of all the battles indicated on the map.
2. Write the number that represents the city that withstood the siege of Mongol troops for several weeks.
3. Write the name of a historical figure who defended the city indicated by the number 8, winning two battles indicated on the map.
4. Write the name of the Mongol commander who participated in the campaigns of the 1220–1230s reflected on the map.
5. Are the statements below true (“yes” – “no”)? Enter your answers into the table.
A) The defense of the city, indicated by the number 6, was led by Voivode Dmitry.
B) In one of the battles indicated on the map, the grandson of Yuri Dolgoruky died.
C) The name of the state whose capital was in the 15th century is signed on the map. became Königsberg.
D) Vladimir troops took part in the battle near the city indicated by the number 5.
D) A contemporary of all the events reflected on the map was the son of Genghis Khan, Jochi.
Total 14 points for task 15.
– – –
16. Correlate the images presented below with the characteristics of the Russian princes given by various domestic historians, with whom these images are associated in meaning. Write the names of these figures in the table.
In the appropriate columns, indicate the serial number of the fragment of the description of the historical figure and the digital designation of the event in world history of which he was a contemporary.
– – –
D) Characteristics of domestic historians 1. “Modern researchers, in general, are unanimous in assessing his role in the creation of a new political system of the Russian state, based on “paternal” ownership of lands. But this is only one of two components of the prince’s political program... In his understanding... the most important basis of the political structure of society was to be the “fear of God” - the sense of responsibility of the princes... before God, before whom everyone living on earth had to answer at the Last Judgment" ( A.Yu. Karpov).
2. “He was a man of strong character, cold, reasonable, with a hard heart, power-hungry, unswerving in the pursuit of his chosen goal, hidden, extremely cautious; in all his actions one can see gradualness, even slowness; he was not distinguished by either courage or bravery, but he knew how to make excellent use of circumstances; he never got carried away, but acted decisively when he saw that the matter had matured to the point where success was undoubted. The taking of lands and, possibly, their permanent annexation to the Moscow state was the cherished goal of his political activity; following his forefathers in this matter, he surpassed them all and left an example of imitation for his descendants for a long time.”
(N.I. Kostomarov).
3. “He acted as an imperious patrimonial prince, steadily striving to expand the territory of his principality and to subordinate other Russian princes to his power. His activities lacked the motives of the national liberation struggle. The prince did not fight against the oppression of the Golden Horde, but paid off the khan with a regular “exit” payment, giving Rus' some respite from the Tatar raids...”
(L.V. Cherepnin).
© SAOU DPO TsPM. Publication on the Internet or in print without the written consent of GAOU DPO TsPM is prohibited.
All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in history 2016-2017 academic year. G.
Municipal stage. 9th grade 4. “With his careful, prudent policy, he saved Rus' from final ruin by the armies of nomads. Through armed struggle, trade policy, and selective diplomacy, he avoided new wars in the North and West, a possible but disastrous alliance with the papacy for Rus', and a rapprochement between the Curia and the Crusaders and the Horde. He gained time, allowing Rus' to grow stronger and recover from the terrible devastation. He is the founder of the policy of the Moscow princes, the policy of the revival of Russia” (V.T. Pashuto).
Events of world history I. Convocation of the Estates General in France II. Excommunication of the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II from the church.
III. Unification of Castile and Aragon into a single kingdom IV. Walking to Canossa Total 12 points.
17. One of the most important aspects of a historian’s activity is analysis of a source, the ability to extract the necessary information from it. Here is a fragment of “Notes on ancient and modern Russia in its political and civil relations,” compiled by N.M. Karamzin. Based on it, write a short work “Criticism of the liberal reforms of Alexander I by his contemporaries.”
“The main mistake of the legislators of this reign was excessive respect for the forms of state activity: that is why the invention of various ministries, the establishment of the Council, etc. Things are not done better - only in places and by officials of a different name. Let us follow another rule and say that it is not the forms, but the people that are important. Let the ministries and the Council exist: they will be useful if in the ministry and in the Council we see only men famous for intelligence and honor. So, our first good wish is, may God help Alexander in the happy election of people!
Such an election, and not the establishment of a Senate with collegiums, marked the greatness of Peter's reign in the internal affairs of the empire. This monarch had a passion for capable people, looked for them in monastery cells and in dark cabins: there he found Feofan and Osterman, glorious in our state history.
The circumstances are different and modest, the quiet qualities of the soul distinguish Alexander from Peter, who was everywhere himself, spoke to everyone, listened to everyone and took upon himself to decide the dignity of a person with one word, with one look; but let there be the same rule: look for people! Whoever has the power of attorney of the Sovereign, let him notice them in the distance for the very first places. Not only in republics, but also in monarchies, candidates must be appointed solely according to ability. The almighty hand of the autocrat leads one, © GAOU DPO TsPM. Publication on the Internet or in printed publications without 11 written consent of the State Autonomous Educational Institution DPO TsPM is prohibited.
All-Russian Olympiad for schoolchildren in history 2016-2017 academic year. G.
Municipal stage.
9th grade of another rushes to heights; slow gradualism is the law for the multitude, not for all. Those who have the mind of a minister should not turn gray as chiefs or secretaries. Officials are humiliated not by their quick acquisition, but by the stupidity or dishonor of dignitaries; envy is aroused, but soon falls silent in the face of the worthy. You do not form a useful ministry by composing an Order - then you will form it when you prepare good ministers. The council is considering their proposal, but are you confident in the wisdom of its members?
General wisdom is born only from private wisdom. In a word, what is most needed now is people!”
Work plan
1. Characteristics of the document. Based on your knowledge of the history course, answer the questions. What is the author of “The Note” famous for? When was the document created? Who was it intended for?
2. Characteristics of the circumstances of the creation of the document. What problem is addressed in the “Note”? What transformations were carried out by Emperor Alexander I at that time? Which statesman was negatively perceived by Karamzin as the author of unnecessary transformations for the country?
4. Conclusions: what current of social thought did the author belong to? What did he first of all draw the attention of the addressee of the “Note” to? Give two points.
Total 21 points.
– – –
18. You will have to work with statements by historians and contemporaries about events and figures in Russian history. Choose one of them that will become the topic of your essay. Your task is to formulate your own attitude to this statement and justify it with arguments that seem to you the most significant. When choosing a topic, assume that you:
1) clearly understand the meaning of the statement (it is not necessary to completely or even partially agree with the author, but it is necessary to understand what exactly he is saying);
2) you can express your attitude to the statement (reasonably agree with the author or completely or partially refute his statement);
3) have specific knowledge (facts, statistics, examples) on this topic;
4) know the terms necessary to correctly express your point of view.
Topics 1. “Under Vladimir Monomakh, Rus' defeated the Polovtsians, and they temporarily ceased to be a constant threat.
The power of the Kyiv prince extended to all lands inhabited by the ancient Russian people. The strife of the petty princes was resolutely suppressed by the heavy hand of the Grand Duke. Kyiv was truly the capital of a huge, largest state in Europe."
(B.A. Rybakov).
2. “Let us now take a look at the map of medieval Europe and try to outline the international position of Russia. For residents of Western Europe, the Russian lands of that time were little known. But this does not mean that Russia lived some kind of closed life. It was connected by busy trade routes with the countries of the West, East and the Mediterranean” (M.N. Tikhomirov).
3. “The flourishing of ancient Russian art, with which the name of Rublev is inextricably linked, is simultaneous with the early Italian Renaissance (otherwise, the Proto-Renaissance, or the Pre-Renaissance). But should a parallel be drawn between these flowerings of the arts? And is it even possible to apply the terms “Renaissance” and “Pre-Renaissance” to ancient Russian artistic creativity? (L.D. Lyubimov).
4. “Tsar Boris had no doubt that the impostor was prepared by the seditious boyars. One of the tsar’s bodyguards, K. Bussov, reports that Godunov, at the very first news of the impostor’s successes, told his boyars to their faces that this was their doing and was conceived to overthrow him, in which he was not mistaken, Bussov added on his own” ( R.G. Skrynnikov).
– – –
5. “In the ideology of Peter the Great’s time, the image of a school that was completed by the entire country, “planted” by a formidable “teacher,” was popular. But for the reformer tsar it was not only a vivid image, but also a real state task” (E.V. Anisimov).
6. “For Nikolai Pavlovich, the fight against the revolution was not only a tradition bequeathed to him by his older brother, and not only a matter of personal taste:
although for this sovereign, who loved military divorce more than anything in the world, hardly anything could be more disgusting than popular movements that violated all “order” and all subordination. To a large extent, it was a matter of self-preservation for him” (M.N. Pokrovsky).
7. “All the reforms of the beginning of the reign of Emperor Alexander II are undoubtedly in close connection with each other and are a reflection of the social upsurge of energy and creativity that replaced the involuntary thirty years of stagnation and silence. This connection is most obvious if we turn to judicial reform...”
b) 1613
In 1613 A Zemsky Sobor took place in Moscow, at which the question of choosing a new Russian Tsar was raised. The Polish prince Vladislav, the son of the Swedish king Karl-Philip, the son of False Dmitry 2 and Marina Mnishek Ivan, as well as representatives of the largest boyar families were proposed as candidates for the Russian throne.
On February 21, the cathedral chose Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the 16-year-old great-nephew of Ivan the Terrible’s first wife, Anastasia Romanova.
2. During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich (1613 -1645):
a) emergency taxes were introduced - five-dollar money
Zemsky Sobors were primarily concerned with finding funds to replenish the treasury and with foreign relations. In addition to increasing direct land taxes, the government, with the consent of the councils, several times collected emergency taxes, the so-called five-point money. For the period from 1613 to 1619. they gathered seven times, and twice more during the Smolensk War.
c) the period for searching fugitives has been increased to 10 years.
The state took the path of assigning peasants to their owners. In 1619 A five-year period was again announced, and in 1637. - nine-year investigation of fugitives. In 1642 A decree was again issued on a ten-year period for the search for fugitives and a fifteen-year period for the search for peasants who were forcibly removed.
d) the first handwritten newspaper “Chimes” appears.
The newspaper began publishing in Moscow in 1621 to inform Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and the Boyar Duma, although individual issues appeared as early as June 1600, and continued to be published under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The newspaper was handwritten and prepared by the clerks of the Ambassadorial Prikaz especially for Alexei Mikhailovich. The source of information from abroad were foreign newspapers, letters from Russian people abroad, reports of ambassadors (“article lists”), news within the country came from various orders.
3. What are the conditions of the Stolbovo Peace Treaty of 1617? With Sweden?
c) Sweden held all the occupied lands except Novgorod.
After several military clashes, and then negotiations, the Stolbovo Peace Treaty was concluded in 1617 (in the village of Stolbovo, near Tikhvin). Sweden returned the Novgorod land to Russia, but retained the Baltic coast and received monetary compensation.
4. What were the conditions of the Deulin Truce of 1618? With Poland?
b) Russia gave Smolensk to Poland
c) Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversk lands went to Poland.
In the village of Deulino near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery in 1618. The Deulin truce was concluded with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which retained the Smolensk, Novgorod-Seversk and Chernigov lands.
5. Where did the first metallurgical plants appear?
b) in the Urals and Tula.
The development of small-scale production prepared the basis for the emergence of manufactories. Manufacture is a large enterprise based on the division of labor and handcraft techniques. In the 17th century Metallurgical plants were built in the Urals and in the Tula region.
6. What did the Council Code of 1649 introduce?
a) severe punishments for crimes against the king and the church.
b) the final equalization of the rights of the estate and patrimony.
c) restrictions on the growth of church and monastic land ownership.
d) freedom from the tax of fugitive settlements in favor of the state.
e) unlimited search for fugitives.
f) assigning the townspeople to the town.
g) serfdom.
“For the sake of fear and civil strife from all black people,” as Patriarch Nikon later wrote, the Zemsky Sobor was convened. Its meetings took place in 1648 -1649. and ended with the adoption of the Council Code of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. The Council Code consisted of 25 chapters and contained about a thousand articles. Any criticism of the church and blasphemy was punishable by burning at the stake. People accused of treason and insulting the honor of the sovereign, as well as boyars and governors, were executed. The cathedral code provided for the exchange of estates, including the exchange of estates for patrimony, and limited the growth of church land ownership, which reflected the tendency of the church to subordinate to the state.
The most important section was Chapter 11, “The Court of Peasants”: an indefinite search for runaway and abducted peasants was introduced, and peasant transfers from one owner to another were prohibited. This meant the legalization of the serfdom system. Chapter 19 “About townspeople” brought changes to the life of the city. The “white” settlements were liquidated, their population was included in the settlement. The entire urban population had to bear the tax on the sovereign. Thus, the entire tax-paying population of the country was attached either to the land or, as was the case in the cities, to the settlement.
Who owned the first metallurgical plants in Russia? and got the best answer
Answer from Condorita[guru]
Demidov
According to Akinfiy Demidov’s will, his entire “empire” was to go to his beloved son Nikita. However, as a result of long family proceedings (even Empress Elizaveta Petrovna herself participated in them), the entire inheritance was divided between three brothers - Prokofy, Grigory and Nikita. The latter received only the Nizhny Tagil part of the inheritance, which included six Ural factories. By the end of Nikita Demidov’s life, the number of enterprises he owned increased to nine. Moreover, in terms of production size, they surpassed all the factories that belonged to his father in the mid-18th century.
Nikita undoubtedly inherited from his father the talent of a manager and industrialist, as well as extreme cruelty towards those who forged this wealth for him. His bad temper became famous throughout Russia. Thus, the peasants of the village of Rusanovo, Tula province, having learned that Nikita Demidov had bought them, rebelled, refusing to pass to the new owner. A military detachment was sent to pacify the peasants - as a result of the clash, more than 60 people died.
Nikita Demidov no longer lives in the Urals, near his factories. He has the Petrovskoye estate near Moscow, luxurious houses in Moscow - one on Myasnitskaya (on the site of the current post office), the other on Voznesenskaya Street Nemetskaya Sloboda, on Yauza - Slobodskaya House (now Radio Street, 10). He was well known in Moscow. True, the house took so long to build (from 1762 to the end of the 1770s) that during this time the magnificent Baroque gave way to strict classicism. And the building, built in the Baroque style, no longer corresponded to enlightened taste and seemed somewhat old-fashioned. And yet the house was so good that M. F. Kazakov included it in his album “Particular buildings of Moscow.” The imagination of Muscovites was amazed not only by the house, but also by the magnificent garden with a grotto, figured ponds, decorative fences cast at Demidov factories, and greenhouses.
Unlike his brother Prokofy, who could not stand titled nobility, Nikita Akinfievich always strived to be recognized among high-ranking people. Perhaps, in this way, throughout his life he overcame the complex of his not entirely “pure”, humble origin. But they say that it constantly made itself felt. The outstanding Russian scientist-encyclopedist A. T. Bolotov, noting the cordiality and curiosity of the “glorious rich man”, in whose Moscow house he saw plenty of “such rare things as he had never seen before,” also notes that “with all his enormous wealth and celebrities" Demidov is, in essence, a simpleton, and through his gold one can see "all the rudeness of his vile nature."
