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The problem of environmental pollution is becoming acute both due to the growth in industrial and agricultural production, and in connection with qualitative changes in production under the influence of scientific and technological progress. It should be noted that only 1-2% of the used natural resource remains in the final product, and the majority goes to waste, not absorbed by nature. Wastes from industrial activities are increasingly polluting the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere of the Earth. The adaptive mechanisms of the biosphere cannot cope with the neutralization of a significant amount of harmful substances, and natural ecosystems begin to collapse.

carbon dioxide(carbon dioxide) - one of the components of the gas composition of the atmosphere, plays an important role not only in the life of humans, plants and animals, but also in the function of the atmosphere to prevent overheating or hypothermia of the Earth's surface. Economic activity has disturbed the natural balance of CO emission and assimilation in nature, as a result of which its concentration in the atmosphere is increasing. From 1959 to 2000, the amount of carbon dioxide increased by 10%. Some important elements of the CO2 cycle are not yet fully understood. Interdependence between its concentration in the atmosphere and the ability to retain excess heat coming from the Sun has not been established. However, an increase in CO2 concentration indicates a profound disruption of the global equilibrium in the biosphere, which, in combination with other disturbances, can have very serious consequences.

Pollution entering the World Ocean, first of all, disturbed the natural balance of the marine environment in the coastal zone of the continental shelf, where 99% of all marine biological resources extracted by man are concentrated. Anthropogenic pollution of this zone caused its biological productivity to decrease by 20%, and the world fishery missed 15-20 million tons of catch. According to the UN, 50,000 tons of pesticides, 5,000 tons of mercury, 10 million tons of oil and many other pollutants enter the oceans every year.

The amount of substances that annually fall from anthropogenic sources with river runoff into the waters of the seas and oceans - iron, manganese, copper, zinc, lead, tin, arsenic, oil - exceeds the volume of these substances coming as a result of geological processes. The bottom of the World Ocean, including deep-sea basins, is increasingly being used for the burial of especially dangerous toxic substances (including "obsolete" chemical warfare agents), as well as radioactive materials. Thus, from 1946 to 1970, the United States buried about 90,000 containers of waste with a total radioactivity of approximately 100,000 curies on the Atlantic coast of the country, and European countries dumped waste with a total radioactivity of 500,000 curies into the ocean. As a result of depressurization of containers, cases of dangerous contamination of waters and the natural environment are observed in the places of these burials.

In the sea oil pollution has various forms. It can cover the surface of the water with a thin film, and during spills, the layer of oil film can initially be several centimeters. Over time, an oil-in-water or water-in-oil emulsion forms. Later, there are lumps of heavy fraction of oil, oil aggregates that are able to float on the surface of the sea for a long time. Various small animals are attached to floating oil lumps, which fish and baleen whales willingly feed on. Together with them, they swallow oil. Some fish die from this, others are soaked through with oil and become unsuitable for eating due to an unpleasant smell and taste.

All oil components are toxins for marine organisms. Oil affects the structure of the marine animal community. With oil pollution, the ratio of species changes and their diversity decreases. So, microorganisms that feed on petroleum hydrocarbons develop abundantly, and the biomass of these microorganisms is poisonous to many marine life. It has been proven that long-term chronic exposure to even small concentrations of oil is very dangerous. At the same time, the primary biological productivity of the sea is gradually decreasing. Oil has another unpleasant side property. its hydrocarbons are capable of dissolving a number of other pollutants, such as pesticides, heavy metals, and together with oil they concentrate in the near-surface layer and poison it even more. The aromatic fraction of oil contains substances of a mutagenic and carcinogenic nature.

The largest amount of oil is concentrated in a thin near-surface layer of sea water. Many organisms are concentrated in it, this layer plays the role of a "kindergarten" for many populations. Surface oil films disrupt gas exchange between the atmosphere and the ocean. The processes of dissolution and release of oxygen, carbon dioxide, heat transfer change, the reflectivity (albedo) of sea water decreases.

Chlorinated hydrocarbons, which are widely used to combat pests in agriculture and forestry, with carriers of infectious diseases, have been entering the World Ocean along with river runoff and through the atmosphere for many decades. DDT and its derivatives are found throughout the oceans, including the Arctic and Antarctic.

They are easily soluble in fats and therefore accumulate in the organs of fish, mammals, and seabirds. As xenobiotics, that is, substances of completely artificial origin, they do not have their “consumers” among microorganisms and therefore almost do not decompose in natural conditions, but only accumulate in the oceans. At the same time, they are acutely toxic, affect the hematopoietic system, inhibit enzymatic activity, and strongly affect heredity.

Along with river runoff, heavy metals also enter the ocean, many of which have toxic properties. The total volume of river runoff is 46 thousand m3 of water per year. Together with it, 2 million tons of lead, up to 20 thousand tons of cadmium, and up to 10 thousand tons of mercury enter the World Ocean. Coastal waters and inland seas have the highest pollution levels. The atmosphere also plays a significant role in the pollution of the oceans. For example, up to 30% of all mercury and 50% of lead entering the ocean is annually transported through the atmosphere.

Due to its toxicity in the marine environment, mercury poses a particular danger. Under the influence of microbiological processes, toxic inorganic mercury is converted into much more toxic organic forms of mercury. Accumulated due to bioaccumulation in fish or shellfish, methylmercury compounds pose a direct threat to human life and health.

Mercury, cadmium, lead, copper, zinc, chromium, arsenic and other heavy metals not only accumulate in marine organisms, thereby poisoning marine food, but also have the most negative impact on marine life. Accumulation coefficients of toxic metals, i.e. their concentration per unit weight in marine organisms in relation to sea water varies widely - from hundreds to hundreds of thousands, depending on the nature of metals and types of organism)). These coefficients show how harmful substances accumulate in fish, mollusks, crustaceans and other organisms.

The beginning of the space age gave rise to the problem of maintaining the integrity of another earthly shell - cosmosphere(near-Earth space). The penetration of man into space is not just a heroic epic, it is also a purposeful long-term policy of mastering new resources of nature and the natural environment.

The outer shell of the Earth performs a number of functions important for the life of the planet and for life on the planet, related to the maintenance of its radiation-heat balance, the occurrence of certain geophysical processes. Therefore, the preservation of natural balances and the original properties of the Earth's cosmossphere in the process of human penetration into it is a big, vitally important general planetary task.

Space activity covers a wide range of applied areas: the study of the Earth's natural resources, monitoring the state of the environment, communications, navigation, meteorology, geodesy, cartography, television broadcasting, rescue of ships and aircraft in distress; technological, biological and other scientific experiments pave the way for an even more intensive, in particular industrial, use of space.

Outer space is increasingly becoming an arena for diverse and fruitful peaceful cooperation. Intensive research and experiments for civilian purposes are currently underway in space. All this involves the launch of a large number of space objects. In the early 1980s, more than 100 objects per year were launched into space. Currently, there are about 10-15 thousand large artificial objects and 40,000 small ones (approximately 2.5 centimeters in diameter) in Earth's orbit.

Some of the current and future types of space activities should become the object of regulation in order to exclude pollution and other forms of disruption of the natural balance in outer space. Currently, in international forums, there is a discussion, in addition to the issue of the non-militarization of outer space, of such aspects of regulation as: reducing the number of satellites that have exhausted their reserve (the so-called space waste), dumping various kinds of dangerous "terrestrial" waste into space, launching large rocket boosters on solid fuel.

One of the most acute global problems of our time is the problem of the increasing acidity of precipitation and soil cover. Acid rain causes more than just acidification of the groundwater in the upper layers of the pounds. Acidity with precipitation extends to the entire soil profile and causes significant acidification of groundwater. Acid rain occurs as a result of human activities, accompanied by the emission of oxides of sulfur, nitrogen, carbon. These oxides, entering the atmosphere, are transported over long distances, interact with water and turn into solutions of a mixture of sulfurous, sulfuric, nitrous, nitric and carbonic acids, which fall in the form of "acid rain" on land, interacting with plants, soils, waters. The main sources of accumulation of oxides in the atmosphere are the combustion of shale, oil, coal, gas in industry, agriculture, and everyday life. Human economic activity has almost doubled the release of sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. Naturally, this affected the increase in the acidity of atmospheric precipitation, surface and ground waters.

Aerosol pollution of the atmosphere. Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in air. The solid components of aerosols are in some cases dangerous for organisms, and cause specific diseases in humans. In the atmosphere, aerosol pollution is perceived in the form of smoke, fog, if I can. The average size of aerosol particles is 1-5 microns.

The main sources of artificial aerosol air pollution are thermal power plants, which consume high-ash coal, enrichment plants, metallurgical, cement, magnesite soot plants. Aerosol particles from these sources are distinguished by a wide variety of chemical composition. Most often, compounds of silicon, calcium and carbon are found in their composition, less often metal oxides: iron, magnesium, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, bismuth, selenium, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, molybdenum, and also asbestos. An even greater variety is characteristic of organic dust, including aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, acid salts. Bona is formed during the combustion of residual petroleum products, in the process of pyrolysis at oil refineries, petrochemical and other similar enterprises. Permanent sources of aerosol pollution are industrial dumps - artificial mounds of overburden formed during mining or from waste from processing industries, thermal power plants. The source of dust and poisonous gases is mass blasting. So, as a result of one medium-sized explosion (250 - 300 tons of explosives), about 2 thousand M 3, conditional carbon monoxide and more than 150 tons of dust are released into the atmosphere. The production of cement and other building materials is also a source of air pollution with dust.

Destruction of the ozone layer. Ozone- one of the forms of existence of the chemical element oxygen in the earth's atmosphere - its molecule consists of three oxygen atoms 03 for the formation of ozone, the preliminary formation of free oxygen atoms is necessary.

With an increase in the amount of atomic oxygen, the ozone content in the atmosphere also increases. However, ultraviolet radiation also increases with altitude, destroying ozone faster than it is being formed, so the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere begins to decrease. Measurements show that ozone in the atmosphere has a layered structure and its bulk is concentrated in a layer at a height of 20-25 km, and starting from a height of 55 km, its concentration actively decreases, therefore, ozone is present in the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere.

"The ozone hole" is the phenomenon of reducing the total amount of ozone. A systematic decrease in the concentration of B 3 in the spring by about 1.5 - 2 times was noted. Chlorine and fluorocarbons (FCCs) have been used for over 60 years as refrigerants in refrigerators and air conditioners, propellants in aerosol mixtures, foaming agents in fire extinguishers, cleaners for electronic devices, in dry cleaning of clothes, and in the production of foam plastics. The inertness of these compounds makes them hazardous to atmospheric ozone. CFCs do not break down rapidly in the troposphere (lower atmosphere, extending from the Earth's surface to 10 km altitude), as, for example, most nitrogen oxides do, and eventually enter the stratosphere, the upper limit of which is located at an altitude of about 50 km. When the CFC molecules rise to a height of 25 km, where the concentration of ozone is maximum, they are exposed to intense ultraviolet radiation, do not penetrate to lower altitudes due to the action of ozone, which shields. Ultraviolet destroys normally stable CFC molecules, which break down into components that are highly reactive, in particular atomic chlorine. Thus, CFCs transport chlorine from the Earth's surface through the troposphere and lower atmosphere, where less inert chlorine compounds are destroyed, into the stratosphere, to the layer with the highest concentration of ozone. It is very important that chlorine acts like a catalyst during the destruction of ozone: its amount does not decrease during the chemical process. As a consequence, one chlorine atom can destroy up to 10,000 ozone molecules before it is released back into the troposphere. Currently, CFC emissions into the atmosphere are in the millions of tons, and the effect of those that have already entered the atmosphere will continue for several decades.

Many countries have begun to take steps to reduce the production and use of CFCs. Since 1978 The US banned the use of CFCs in aerosols. Unfortunately, the use of CFCs in other areas has not been restricted. In September 1987, 23 leading countries of the world signed a convention in Montreal obliging them to reduce their consumption of CFCs. A substitute has already been found for use as a propane tape in aerosols - a propane-butane mixture. In terms of physical parameters, it is practically not inferior to freons, but, unlike them, it is flammable. Things are more complicated with refrigeration equipment - the second largest consumer of freons. The fact is that, due to the polarity of CFC molecules, they have a high heat of vaporization, which is very important for the working fluid in refrigerators and air conditioners. The best substitute for freons known today is ammonia, but it is toxic and still inferior to CFCs in terms of physical parameters.

The use of CFCs continues and is far from even stabilizing the level of CFCs in the atmosphere. So, according to the Global Monitoring Network for Climate Change, under background conditions - on the shores of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and on islands, far from industrial and densely populated areas - the concentration of freons is currently growing at a rate of 5 - 9% per year. The content of photochemically active chlorine compounds in the stratosphere is currently 2-3 times higher compared to the level of the 1950s, before the start of accelerated freon production.

The largest ozone hole was found over Antarctica and is largely a consequence of meteorological processes. The formation of ozone is possible only in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, and during the Polar Night it is not produced. In winter, a stable vortex forms over the Antarctic, preventing the influx of ozone-rich air from the middle latitudes. Therefore, by spring, even a small amount of active chlorine can cause serious damage to the ozone layer. Such a vortex is practically absent over the Arctic, so the drop in ozone concentration is much smaller in the northern hemisphere. Many researchers believe that polar stratospheric clouds influence the process of ozone depletion. These high-altitude clouds are much more frequently observed over the Antarctic than over the Arctic, and form in winter when, in the absence of sunlight and in the meteorological isolation of Antarctica, the temperature in the stratosphere drops below -80 °

Nitrogen fertilizers are a powerful source of ozone destruction. Once in the soil, such fertilizers are sprayed, while a certain number of molecules enter the surface air. Then a whole chain of processes occurs: turbulence in the surface air layer, transfer of gas enriched with nitric oxides to low sprats, reverse horizontal transfer of gas to higher latitudes already in the stratosphere.

Nitrogen oxides also enter the atmosphere during the combustion of industrial fuels. According to available estimates, the amount of nitrous oxide released into the air with the smoke of conventional (non-nuclear) fueled power plants is itself quite large at 3-4 megatons per year, although it is not as dangerous as compared to nitrogenous fertilizers.

Many hydrogen compounds are involved in the hydrogen cycle. Hydrogen enters the atmosphere in the form of water.

Human activity also brings water into the upper atmosphere. When large rockets are lifted into the atmosphere, a large number of H 2 0 molecules are ejected; water is also released during flights of stratospheric aviation.

Hydrogen also enters the atmosphere in the form of methane CIS. The natural source of methane is moist forests, swamps and rice fields, where it is formed as a result of the activity of anaerobic bacteria.

American scientists have invented that it is the chlorine cycle of ozone destruction that poses the greatest real danger to the existence of the ozone layer.

The development of civilization leads to increasing emissions of chlorine compounds into the atmosphere, and freons (chlorofluorocarbon compounds, such as CFC1 3 CF 2 Cl 2) play one of the leading roles in this process. Freon production growth continues at a tremendous pace (this is the production of refrigeration equipment, aerosols, foam plastics, etc.). their entry into the atmosphere is associated with technological losses.

Two ways to restore the ozone layer have been identified: removing ozone-depleting substances from the atmosphere and generating ozone.

The first way - the removal of catalysts from the atmosphere - does not yet have real solutions. It was supposed to use laser irradiation of the ozone layers of the atmosphere in order to dissociate freon molecules. But the slow decay of freon molecules still saves us from the accelerated destruction of the ozone layer and only a small part of the laser energy will work to achieve the goal, its main part will be dissipated in space.

The second way is to freeze out ozone in refrigeration devices on Earth - for this it would be necessary to pass a significant fraction of the atmosphere through them.

The most realistic is a project involving the creation of electrical discharges in the stratosphere using high-frequency radio waves. The discharge is created using fixed phased antenna arrays located on the ground. The dimensions of the required antenna are about a hundred meters, the phase control of individual elements allows for focusing radiation and scanning at a certain height. Power supply can be provided from a nuclear power plant with a capacity of tens of MW, and the efficiency of the radio engineering part relative to the primary source can reach 80%. The mechanism of ozone formation during the discharge is plasma-chemical and thermal.

In the plasma-chemical mechanism, oxygen molecules are destroyed by electrons generated in an electric discharge.

The thermal mechanism of ozone recovery can have a significant impact on reducing energy costs. There is an assumption that an ozone "hole" occurs only at t - 80 ° C. If this is so, and assuming that such a temperature exists only in certain places of the "hole", it becomes possible to compensate for the ozone deficiency only in these places. Thus, the theoretical possibility of restoring the ozone layer exists.

Environmental pollution is considered a physico-chemical change in the composition of a natural substance (air, water, soil), which threatens the state of health and life of a person, his natural environment. Pollution can be cosmic - natural, which the earth receives in significant quantities from space, from volcanic eruptions, and anthropogenic, committed as a result of human economic activity. Consider the second type of pollution committed by the will of man.

Environmental consequences- these are the consequences that are the result of an emergency event, emergency, accident, resulting in damage to the natural environment, health and well-being of the population, environmental and economic damage, determined in the short term and predicted in the long term.

Main types of pollution

Physical(thermal, noise, electromagnetic, light, radioactive)

chemical e (heavy metals, pesticides, plastics and other chemical substances)

biological(biogenic, microbiological, genetic)

informational(information noise, false information, anxiety factors)

Anthropogenic pollution of the environment is divided into several types.). Depending on the region, the share of one or another source of pollution can vary significantly. So, in cities, the largest share of pollution comes from transport. Its share in environmental pollution is 70--80%. Among industrial enterprises, metallurgical enterprises are considered the most "dirty". They pollute the environment by 34%. They are followed by energy companies, primarily thermal power plants, which pollute the environment by 27%. The remaining percentages fall on chemical enterprises (9% ), oil (12%) and gas (7%) industries.

Every year, more than 20 tons of waste falls on one inhabitant of the Earth. The main objects of pollution are atmospheric air, water bodies, including the World Ocean, soils. Every day, thousands and thousands of tons of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur and other harmful substances are emitted into the atmosphere. And only 10% of this amount is absorbed by plants. Sulfur oxide (sulfur dioxide) is the main pollutant, the source of which is thermal power plants, boiler houses, and metallurgical plants.

The concentration of sulfur dioxide in nitrogen oxides generates acid rain, which destroys crops, vegetation, and adversely affects the state of fish stocks. Along with sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, which is formed as a result of combustion, has a negative impact on the state of the atmosphere. Its sources are thermal power plants, metallurgical plants, transport. For all previous years, the share of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 20% and continues to increase by 0.2% per year. If such growth rates are maintained, by the year 2000 the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will increase by 30-40%.

Such a physicochemical change in the atmosphere can lead to the phenomenon of the greenhouse effect. Its essence is that the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the upper layers of the atmosphere will interfere with the normal process of heat exchange between the Earth and Space, will restrain the heat accumulated by the Earth as a result of economic activity and due to certain natural causes, for example, volcanic eruptions.

The greenhouse effect is expressed in temperature increase, weather and climate change. We are already seeing similar phenomena. With modern anthropogenic loads, the temperature will rise by 0.5° every 10 years. The consequences of such a change in temperature are expressed in the rise in the level of the World Ocean and the flooding of part of the land, settlements. I must say that in 100 years the level of the World Ocean has risen by 10-12 cm, but with the greenhouse effect, such a rise can be accelerated by 10 times.

Another consequence of the greenhouse effect may be an increase in land desertification. Already, 6 million hectares of land annually turn into desert.

The state of the Earth's ozone layer is associated with atmospheric pollution, the main function of which is to protect humans and the Earth's natural environment from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from space. Under the influence of ozone-depleting substances - fleron, freon, chlorine, carbon emitted by refrigeration units, cars, etc., this layer is gradually destroyed, in particular, in some places over densely populated areas, its thickness has decreased by 3%. It is known that the reduction of the ozone layer by 1% leads to an increase in the incidence of skin cancer by 6%.

Other equally important objects of pollution are reservoirs, rivers, lakes, and the World Ocean. Billions of tons of liquid and solid waste are dumped into the oceans every year. Among these wastes, oil that enters the ocean from ships, as a result of oil production in the marine environment, and also as a result of numerous tanker accidents, excels. An oil spill leads to the formation of an oil film in the ocean, the death of the living resources of the sea, including algae, plangton, which produce oxygen.

Oxygen in the atmosphere is replenished from two sources - vegetation (about 40%) and the oceans (60%). In the oceans, oxygen is produced by the smallest organisms - plangton. The death of plangton under the oil film reduces the ability of the ocean to replenish the Earth's atmosphere with oxygen reserves.

In addition, pollution of the World Ocean leads not only to a reduction in food resources, fish stocks, but also to their contamination with substances harmful to humans. It was found that, for example, Baltic cod has up to 80 milligrams of mercury per 1 kg of weight, i.e. 5-8 times more than in a medical thermometer.

Chemicals used in agriculture have become a massive source of environmental pollution: mineral fertilizers, pesticides, growth stimulants. Over 5 million various kinds of chemicals and compounds are now distributed on the planet. The toxicity of their action is little studied (about 40 thousand substances).

These and other consequences of environmental pollution ultimately have a negative impact on the physical health of a person, on his nervous, mental state, and on the health of future generations. Some data: 20% of the population is constantly exposed to allergies as a result of the harmful effects of environmental pollution; 25,000 people die every day around the globe due to bad water, i.e. water, which contains concentrations of harmful substances in large doses; 35% of the population of industrial cities systematically suffer from various kinds of diseases caused by environmental pollution.

3. General scheme for granting subsoil plots for use

The competition may be open, when the offer of the organizer of the competition to take part in it is addressed to everyone by an announcement in the press or other mass media, or closed, when the offer to take part in the competition is sent to a certain circle of persons at the choice of the organizer of the competition. An open competition may be conditioned by the preliminary qualification of its participants, when the organizer of the competition conducts a preliminary selection of persons wishing to take part in it.

In accordance with civil law, the announcement of a competition must contain conditions that provide for the essence of the task, the criteria and procedure for evaluating the results of work or other achievements, the place, term and procedure for their presentation, the amount and form of the award, as well as the procedure and timing for announcing the results of the competition. The person who announced a public competition has the right to change its conditions or cancel the competition only during the first half of the period established for the submission of works. In the event of a change in the conditions of the competition or its cancellation, the person who announced the competition must reimburse the costs incurred by any person who performed the work specified in the announcement before he became or should have become aware of the change in the conditions of the competition and its cancellation.

An alternative form of selection of applicants for obtaining the right to use subsoil plots is an auction system. It is a kind of public auction, the subject of which is the goods being sold, property or property rights acquired by the person who offered the highest price.

The auction is held according to special rules.

The auction is carried out, as a rule, open, ie. publicly, when bidders openly raise the price, or tacitly, when they give conventional signs, in response to which the auctioneer announces a new price without naming the bidder.

The auction can also be carried out in a closed way, when the minimum price is announced in advance, and the applicants offer their price in sealed envelopes and transfer them to the auctioneer before the start of the auction. The auctioneer in the process of a public auction opens the envelopes and announces the winner - the participant who offered the highest price. If the same highest price was named simultaneously by several participants, usually an open auction is immediately organized for them.

The main criterion for identifying the winner in an auction for the right to use a subsoil block is the amount of a one-time payment for the right to use a subsoil block.

The subsoil legislation provides for bidding either for the right to use subsoil or for the right to conclude a PSA. Bidding for the right to use is carried out in the form of a tender or auction, as a result of which the right to use subsoil is granted and a corresponding license is issued. The right to conclude a PSA is also acquired based on the results of a tender or auction, after which the winner negotiates and, having concluded the PSA, receives the right to use the subsoil, which is certified by the appropriate license.

With a non-competitive system for granting subsoil plots for use, similarly, either a license agreement is concluded and a license for the right to use subsoil is granted on certain conditions, or a PSA is concluded and a license is issued.

The conditions of the competition usually contain the structure and composition of the TEP. In the conditions of competitions (auctions), the following issues are usually considered: the object of the competition (auction); brief geological and technical characteristics of subsoil plots; subject and conditions of the competition (auction); criteria taken into account when choosing a winner; the procedure for holding and summing up the results of the competition (auction); conditions for issuing a license.

The package of documents submitted as tender conditions may include the text of the License Agreement. At the discretion of the competition commission, it may have the status of a typical (mandatory) or exemplary (recommended) one.

Granting the right to use subsoil without holding a tender or auction;

In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Subsoil", the grounds for non-competitive granting of the right to use subsoil may be:

The decision of the Government of the Russian Federation when establishing the fact of the discovery of a mineral deposit by a subsoil user who carried out work on the geological study of subsoil areas of internal sea waters, the territorial sea and the continental shelf at his own expense, for the purposes of exploration and mining of such a deposit;

The decision of the Government of the Russian Federation, agreed with the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, for the purposes of burial of radioactive, toxic and other hazardous wastes in deep horizons, ensuring the localization of such wastes;

Joint decision of the federal management body of the State Subsoil Fund or its territorial body and the executive body of the relevant subject of the Russian Federation: for the purposes of construction and operation of underground structures not related to the extraction of minerals; when establishing the fact of discovery of a mineral deposit by a subsoil user who carried out work on the geological study of subsoil plots at his own expense, for the purposes of exploration and extraction of minerals of such a deposit located on the territory of the corresponding subject of the Russian Federation; for the purposes of geological study and extraction of groundwater used for drinking water supply of the population or technological water supply for industrial facilities; for the purposes of construction of oil and gas storages in rock formations and operation of such storages; placement of industrial and household waste; for the formation of specially protected geological objects; granting the right to short-term (up to one year) use of a subsoil plot for the purposes of a legal entity (operator) carrying out activities on a subsoil plot, the right to use which was terminated ahead of schedule;

The decision of the federal governing body of the State Subsoil Fund or its territorial body, agreed with the interested executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, for the purposes of geological study of subsoil plots, including subsoil plots of internal sea waters, the territorial sea and the continental shelf of the Russian Federation;

The procedure established by the representative authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation for obtaining the right to use subsoil plots containing deposits of common minerals, or subsoil plots of local significance, as well as subsoil plots of local significance used for purposes not related to the extraction of minerals;

Cases of transfer of the right to use subsoil plots in accordance with the grounds established by federal laws governing subsoil use relations;

SRP entered into force.

4. State ecological expertise. Subjects and objects of ecological expertise

State ecological expertise as a sphere of activity in the country dates back to 1988, from the moment of the formation of the USSR State Committee for Nature Protection. By the beginning of the 1990s, a system was formed that made it possible to organize and conduct state environmental expertise at all levels of administrative division: at the federal level, at the level of subjects of the Russian Federation (republics, territories, autonomous and national entities) at the regional and city levels. Now these functions are delegated to the Ministry of Natural Resources.

The unified system of state ecological expertise was clearly established by the Law “On Ecological Expertise” (1995). According to this law, the subjects of state environmental review are “specially authorized federal state bodies in the field of environmental protection and territorial structures that have the exclusive right to conduct state environmental review and perform the relevant functions through their divisions specialized in organizing and conducting state ecological expertise".

Subsequently, in connection with the reorganization of the Ministry of Natural Resources of Russia into the State Committee for Ecology of Russia, these functions were transferred at the federal level to the departments of state environmental expertise of the State Committee for Ecology of the Russian Federation, at the level of subjects of the Russian Federation - to specialized divisions of the territorial bodies of the State Committee for Ecology of the Russian Federation to 20 republican ministries; 6 regional committees; 10 district committees; 50 regional committees; one joint regional and city committee (Leningrad region and St. Petersburg), one city committee (Moscow).

The legislative basis of environmental expertise is defined by the federal law "On Environmental Expertise", adopted in 1995, in the law "On Environmental Protection" (2002) and in a number of by-laws: "Regulations on the procedure for conducting state environmental expertise" (1996) and " Regulations for the State Ecological Expertise” (1997). Many substances have developed their own instructions on the requirements for the composition of the documentation submitted for the state environmental review. In a number of constituent entities of the Russian Federation, normative legal acts and areas of expertise have been adopted. They can be referred to:

"Regulations on the State Ecological Expertise of the Committee for Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of the Nizhny Novgorod Region", approved by the Legislative Assembly of the Nizhny Novgorod Region on November 29, 1994;

"Regulations on the State Ecological Expertise on the Territory of the Murmansk Region", approved by the Administration of the Murmansk Region on May 6, 1996;

"Regulations on the State Ecological Expertise on the Territory of the Pskov Region", approved by the decision of the regional meeting of deputies of November 21, 1996;

“Regulations on State Ecological Expertise in the Kirov Region”, approved by the Governor of the Region on April 22, 1997;

relevant regulatory legal acts adopted in other subjects of the Federation.

Environmental assessment- establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and determining the admissibility of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise in order to prevent possible adverse effects of this activity on the environment and related social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise.

Environmental expertise is an independent type of state environmental control, it has a preventive value, because it is carried out before the start of activities, and also acts as a guarantor of the implementation of environmental legislation. Environmental expertise is carried out in the form of a preliminary check of the compliance of economic decisions, activities and its results with the requirements of environmental protection, rational use of natural resources, and environmental safety of society.

Ecological expertise establishes:

1. Does the planned activity contradict the environmental legislation of the Russian Federation or the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

2. Whether the planned activity complies with the requirements of regulations on environmental protection and rational use of natural resources.

3. Whether the assessment of the impact of the proposed activity on the environment is sufficiently complete.

4. Is the planned activity acceptable from the point of view of the safety of the environment and the population.

5. Are the measures envisaged by the project for environmental protection and rational use of natural resources sufficient?

The main question to be answered by the state expertise is the possibility of implementing the project(recommend the project for implementation, do not recommend the project for implementation, send the project for revision, determining the scope and direction of its improvement).

Types of environmental expertise

The federal laws "On Environmental Expertise" and "On Environmental Protection" define the legal basis for two types of expertise: state ecological and public ecological.

In addition to these legally sound examinations, there are real departmental, scientific And commercial environmental due diligence.

Ecological expertise, especially state expertise, is a legal measure to ensure compliance with environmental requirements when making environmentally significant decisions. Public ecological expertise acts as a means of involving the interested public in the mechanism for making environmentally significant decisions. Departmental environmental expertise most often has a pronounced technological focus, it proves the environmental safety of the project or fixes the degree of environmental danger, the agency itself is interested in it. Among other materials, the conclusion of the departmental expertise is submitted for consideration by the state environmental expertise. Scientificand commercial environmental reviews acquire legal status when they are included either in a public environmental review, or when their conclusion is used when conducting a state environmental review.

Objects of the state ecological expertise of the federallevel. The following are subject to obligatory state ecological expertise conducted at the federal level:

Draft legal acts of the Russian Federation regulatory and non-regulatory nature, the implementation of which may lead to negative impacts on the environment, regulatory and technicaland instructive and methodological documents. They are approved by the state authorities of the Russian Federation and regulate economic and other activities.

Materials subject to government approvalnoah authorities of the Russian Federation and preceding the development of forecasts for the development and distribution of productive forces on the territory of the Russian Federation:

1) projects of complex and targeted federal socio-economic, scientific and technical and other federal programs, the implementation of which may have an impact on the environment;

2) draft master plans for the development of territories of free ecological zones and territories with a special regime of nature management and economic activity;

3) draft schemes for the development of sectors of the national economy of the Russian Federation, including industry;

4) drafts of general schemes for resettlement, nature management and territorial organization of the productive forces of the Russian Federation;

5) draft schemes for resettlement, nature management and territorial organization of the productive forces of large regions and national-state formations;

6) projects of interstate investment programs in which the Russian Federation participates, and federal investment programs;

7) projects of integrated schemes for nature protection in the Russian Federation.

Subject to state environmental expertise:

* feasibility studies and construction projects,reconstruction, expansion, technical re-equipment,serving and liquidation organizations and other objects of economic activity of the Russian Federation and other projects, regardless of their estimated cost, departmental affiliation and forms of ownership, the implementation of which may have an impact on the environment;

feasibility studies and projects of economicactivities, which may have an impact on the natural environment of neighboring states, or for the implementation of which it is necessary to use natural objects common with neighboring states, or which affects the interests of neighboring states, defined by the "Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context";

materials on the creation of a mining andprocessing industry, providing for the use

use of natural resources that are under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation.

Also subject to SEE:

draft international treaties;

documentation substantiating production sharing agreements and concession agreements, as well as other agreements providing for the use of natural resources and (or) production wastes under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation;

materials for substantiating a license to carry out activities that can have an impact on the environment, the issuance of which, in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation, falls within the competence of federal executive authorities;

draft technical documentation for new equipment, technology, materials, substances, certified goods and services, which are included in the list approved by the federal specially authorized state body in the field of environmental expertise, including territories of the legal status of specially protected natural territories of federal significance, zones of ecological disaster or zones of ecological emergency, as well as programs for the rehabilitation of these territories;

draft schemes for the protection and use of water, forest, land and other natural resources under the jurisdiction of the Russian Federation;

documentation for changing the functional status, type and nature of the use of federal territory, including materials justifying the transfer of forest land to non-forest land;

other types of documentation substantiating economic and other activities that can have a direct or indirect impact on the environment within the territory of two or more constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

Objects of the state ecological expertise, previously received a positive conclusion from the state environmental review, are re-considered in the event of:

1) finalization of the object of environmental expertise according to the comments of the earlier state environmental expertise;

2) changes in the conditions of nature management by a specially authorized state body in the field of environmental protection;

3) the implementation of the object of the state environmental review with deviations from the documentation that received a positive conclusion from the state environmental review, and (or) in case of changes to the specified documentation;

4) expiration of the positive conclusion of the state environmental expertise;

5) making changes to the design and other documentation after receiving a positive conclusion from the state environmental review.

Anthropogenic impact strongly changes natural processes. The global consequences of pollution are the greenhouse effect, the destruction of the ozone layer, the disruption of natural cycles, and acid precipitation.

Greenhouse effect and global warming.

The greenhouse effect is an increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere as a result of an increase in the concentration of "greenhouse gases" (carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, etc.) in it, which impede the normal heat exchange of the Earth.

The cause of the greenhouse effect is the release of large amounts of "greenhouse gases" into the atmosphere. Containing in the atmosphere in large quantities nitrogen and oxygen almost do not delay the thermal radiation emanating from the heated surface of the Earth. But "greenhouse gases" - water vapor and carbon dioxide - retain 84% of this radiation. The most important of the greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide (CO2). The increase in its content in the atmosphere began in the 19th century and continues to this day. Over the past 100 years, the content of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by 25%. During the same period, the content of methane increased by 2 times. Billions of tons of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere every year as a result of fuel combustion (in transport engines, in energy production). Methane enters the atmosphere during the extraction of natural gas, as a result of the decomposition of organic remains. An atmosphere saturated with greenhouse gases, like a glass roof in a greenhouse, allows the sun's rays to pass through, but does not allow heat to escape, delaying the thermal radiation of the Earth. This increases the average ambient temperature. An increase in temperature leads to a decrease in the solubility of CO2 in the World Ocean, which causes the appearance of new portions of gas in the atmosphere.

As a result of the warming of the atmosphere, the glaciers melt and the water expands, which leads to an increase in the level of the World Ocean. Already now there is an intensive melting of the ice of Antarctica. Over the past decades, the thickness of ice in the Arctic Ocean has decreased by 40%. By 2030-2050, at the current production rates, there should be an increase in temperature by 1.5-4.5 C, which will cause a rise in the level of the World Ocean by 50-100 cm, and by the end of the century - by 2 m.

The rise in the level of the World Ocean means the flooding of vast coastal areas, the disappearance of small islands, and the waterlogging of lands in many areas. This will be a serious blow to the global economy, since most of the world's population lives near oceans and seas.

Another consequence of climate warming will be severe hurricanes, droughts, monsoon rains, forest fires. There is an assumption that a sharp increase in temperature can change the global ocean circulation, resulting in the rapid onset of the next Ice Age (that is, rapid global cooling).

Even very small, within 1-2 C, climate change leads to droughts in some areas, the expansion of deserts, and an increase in rainfall and floods in other areas. Over the past 50 years, the total area of ​​deserts has increased by about 9 million km2 - an area equal in size to half of South America. With climate change, the normal change of seasons is disrupted, biological rhythms change, which leads to the death of many organisms.

At the environmental conference in Rio de Janeiro, the UN convention on climate change was adopted, according to which 25 developed countries and countries with developing economies should take on the following obligations: return to greenhouse gas emissions, provide financial resources and safe technologies to others countries, etc.

Destruction of the ozone layer.

Another global consequence of pollution is the destruction of the ozone layer, which protects the biosphere from powerful cosmic radiation. The first ozone holes were discovered in 1975 over Antarctica. The ozone layer is currently being depleted over many areas of the globe. The ozone layer over Antarctica over the past few decades has decreased by 40%, over the North Pole - by 10%.

There are many "holes" in the protective ozone layer. Ozone holes have also been found over Russia, especially over its cold part - Siberia.

A decrease in the amount of ozone in the atmosphere affects the planet's climate and human health. Penetrating through the ozone holes, ultraviolet radiation has sufficient energy to destroy most of the organic compounds of a living cell. In areas with low ozone, there is an increase in the incidence of people with eye diseases, suppression of the immune system, as well as an increase in the number of cancers. Thus, American scientists have found that a decrease in the ozone layer by 1% leads to an increase in ultraviolet radiation by 2% and, as a result, an increase in cases of skin cancer by 2.5%. Under the influence of ultraviolet light, plants gradually lose their ability to photosynthesis. This has a particularly strong effect on the photosynthetics of the ocean - small plankton, which is the food of most fish. The death of plankton disrupts all trophic chains in aquatic systems, which inevitably leads to degradation of the biosphere.

The reason for the appearance of ozone holes is the destruction of ozone upon contact with certain pollutants (fluorochlorocarbons - freons, nitrogen oxides), as well as nuclear weapons testing. Freons are used in large quantities in the form of refrigerants in refrigerators, as solvents, sprayers in aerosol cans. These light gases rise to the upper layers of the atmosphere, where they are destroyed with the release of very active chlorine and bromine radicals that interact with ozone. In addition to destroying ozone, freons also enhance the greenhouse effect, playing a double negative role in the atmosphere.

Freon production in the world is very large. The United States alone produces 800-900 thousand tons per year - half of the total.

Acid precipitation over large areas.

The main cause of acid rain is the emission of sulfur and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, which form acids when interacting with water. Gaseous substances are carried by air currents over long distances. As a result, in many areas, precipitation becomes acidic (рН = 5-6; precipitation with pH = 2-3 has also been registered). The consequence of this is the acidification of soils and water bodies in large areas, the death of aquatic organisms, the inhibition of vegetation and the degradation of natural ecosystems. Nutrients are washed out of the soil, as well as toxic compounds, which are returned to living organisms. As a result of acid rain, forests are dying all over the world. Under the influence of acidic compounds, buildings, structures are destroyed, bridges, various metal structures are corroded, and people's health is harmed.

The formation of smog over industrial centers.

Smog is a mixture of smoke, fog and dust that forms a poisonous haze over the city. There are two main types of smog: winter (London type) and summer (Los Angeles type).

Winter (London) smog forms over large industrial centers in winter, in the absence of wind. At the same time, the concentration of pollutants reaches large values, which leads to a deterioration in the health of people.

In 1952, as a result of the formation of this type of smog over London, from December 3 to December 9, more than 4 thousand people died in the city, about 10 thousand were hospitalized. Later, a similar type of smog was observed over other cities. Only the wind can dissipate the smog, reducing the concentration of pollutants contributes to a decrease in their release.

Summer (Los Angeles) smog is also called photochemical. It occurs in the summer as a result of the intense effect of solar radiation on air supersaturated with car emissions. Under the influence of solar energy, some pollutants (for example, nitrogen oxides) form very toxic substances that irritate the lungs, gastrointestinal tract and organs of vision. This smog is typical for cities located in the lowlands.

Man is inextricably linked with the environment that surrounds him. Pollution is a global problem. In connection with the development of industry, transport and scientific and technological progress, human intervention in the environment has become more significant. This sometimes leads to disastrous consequences. The decision is made at the highest level. But even in this case, it is not possible to control this process.

The most detrimental effect is caused by chemical pollution. They are emitted into the atmosphere in huge quantities by industrial enterprises, boiler houses and other organizations. In addition, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air has increased, which can lead to an increase in the temperature of the planet. This can be attributed to the global problem of mankind.

The oil refining industry causes great harm to the world's oceans. The waste from this area enters the environment and can cause a disruption in the exchange of water and gases between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere.

Agriculture also harms nature. Pesticides, getting into the soil, destroy its structure, and, as a result, the ecological system is destroyed. All these factors are the main reasons why environmental pollution occurs.

There is also biological pollution of the environment. In this case, the destruction of the ecological system characteristic of each individual region occurs. Atypical and bacteria appear in it, which negatively and even detrimentally affect the entire system. The cause of biological pollution is the release of industrial waste into nearby water bodies, landfills, irrigation measures, and sewerage. It is from there that harmful microorganisms penetrate the soil, and then into groundwater.

Mankind, engaging in new biotechnologies and experiments at the gene level, can cause irreparable harm to nature and all living organisms. Neglect of elementary safety rules leads to the release of hazardous substances and microorganisms into nature. In this case, the human gene pool may suffer.

The environment is one of the most dangerous. The consequences of such a catastrophe can become irreparable. As a result, the radioactive background increases, which is natural for the atmosphere. This happens at the time of accidents at high-risk facilities, as a result of coal mining (during explosions of deposits). And again, a person becomes the initiator of these phenomena.

The development of science has led to the discovery of new sources of radiation, which are created artificially. It has become a potential danger to the entire world. The possibilities of such sources are much greater than the natural ones to which the environment has adapted.

The increase was the result of the use of some technical and scientific developments (X-ray, medical diagnostic devices, etc.). The development of new deposits and the extraction of certain minerals can also be called a reason. Reactions using radioactive substances lead to a violation of the general background. The use and production of nuclear weapons has become a problem for the entire world community.

Thus, environmental pollution is the fault of people. To prevent a catastrophe, one should treat nature more carefully.

The problem of chemical pollution of the planet is one of the global and urgent environmental problems. The ecological part of chemistry investigates the impact of substances on the environment (air, water, solid bark, living organisms).
Let's look at some of these issues:
acid rain
Greenhouse effect
General air pollution
The ozone hole
Nuclear pollution.

Greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a process in the atmosphere in which incident visible light is transmitted and infrared is absorbed, which increases the temperature at the Earth's surface and harms all nature. Pollution is an excess of carbon dioxide.

This concept was first formulated in 1863. Tydall. In 1896 S. Arrhenius showed that carbon dioxide increases the temperature of the atmosphere by 5 0 C. In the 70s of the 20th century, it was proved that other gases also give a greenhouse effect: carbon dioxide - 50-60%, methane - 20%, nitrogen oxides - 5 %.

A stream of visible rays enters the Earth's surface, they pass through greenhouse gases without changing, and when they meet the Earth, part of them is transformed into long-wave infrared rays. These rays are blocked by greenhouse gases and heat remains on the Earth.

In 1890 - the average temperature of the planet is 14.5 0 C, in 1980 - 15.2 0 C. The danger is in the growth trend. According to forecasts for 2030-50, it will still grow by 1.5-4.5 0 С.

Consequences:

Negative: the melting of eternal snows and the rise of the ocean level by 1.5 m. flooding of the most productive territories, unstable weather, acceleration of the rate of extinction of animals and plants, thawing of permafrost, which will lead to the destruction of buildings built on piles.

Positive: warm winters in the northern regions of our country, some advantages for farming.

Destruction of the ozone layer

Depletion of the ozone layer is the process of reducing the amount of ozone in the atmosphere at an altitude of about 25 km (in the stratosphere). There, ozone and oxygen mutually transform into each other (3O2 ↔ 2O3) under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun and do not let this radiation reach the Earth's surface, which saves the entire living world from extinction. The formation of "ozone holes" is caused by freons and nitrous gases, which absorb UV radiation instead of ozone and disturb the balance.

acid rain

Acid rain is precipitation that contains acids due to the absorption of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides by clouds. The source of pollution is industrial emissions of gases, engines of supersonic aircraft. This leads to damage to deciduous plants, corrosion of metals, acidification of soils and water.

The acidity of natural reservoirs and precipitation is normal if the pH is 5.6 (due to CO 2 dissolved in water)

Acid precipitation is any precipitation that is acidic. They were first registered in England in 1907-1908. Now there are precipitations with a pH of 2.2-2.3.

Sources of acid precipitation: acid oxides: SO 2 , NO 2

Acid precipitation formation mechanism: gases + water vapor form solutions of acids with pH< 7

Sulfur compounds are released into the atmosphere:
a) in a natural way i.e. biological processes of destruction, the action of anaerobic bacteria of wetlands, volcanic activity.
b) anthropogenic - 59-60% of the total amount of emissions into the atmosphere, processing of various types of fuel, the work of metallurgy enterprises, cement work, the production of sulfuric acid, etc.

2 H 2 S + 3O 2 \u003d 2H 2 O + 2SO 2

Nitrogen oxides enter the atmosphere:
a) naturally - by a thunderstorm, or under the action of soil bacteria;
b) anthropogenic - due to the activity of vehicles, thermal power plants, the production of mineral fertilizers, nitric acid, nitro compounds, blasting.

2NO + O 2 \u003d 2NO 2

When nitric oxide +4 is dissolved in water, two acids are formed - nitric and nitrous, when nitric oxide +4 is oxidized and interacts with water, nitric acid is formed.

2NO 2 + H 2 O \u003d HNO 3 + HNO 2

4NO 2 + 2H 2 O + O 2 \u003d 4HNO 3

General air pollution

In addition to the listed oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, other gases are also emitted into the atmosphere.

Carbon forms two oxides: carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide is poison. It is formed during the incomplete combustion of fuel.

The main suppliers of harmful gases are cars.

MPC CO - 9 -10 μg / m 3

There are many other types of environmental pollution, such as sewage with toxic waste, highly persistent substances (pesticides, heavy metals, polyethylene, etc.), industrial smoke and dust, road transport, oil tankers.

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