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10 CHAPTER. Norway in the second half of the 19th century. The beginning of industrialization and the establishment of the bourgeois-democratic system

As we have seen, already in the 40s of the XIX century. in Norway, factories began to emerge in various industries, marking the beginning of the industrial revolution. In the 1950s, this process continued, and in the 1960s, true capitalist industrialization began in Norway. Its apogee in the period under review fell on the second half of the 1990s.

Even at the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, such an astute observer as Friedrich Engels was struck by the backwardness of Norway: "Only very recently have some sprouts of large-scale industry begun to appear sporadically in the country." "The people here, that is, in the countryside, are beautiful, strong, courageous, narrow-minded and fanatically religious." However, over the five years of 1895-1899. the number of new industrial establishments and the total number of industrial workers increased as never before in the same period. The power of engines in industry increased by 64%, export of industrial goods - by 30%2.

In general, during the second half of the XIX century. Norway turned from an agrarian country into an agro-industrial one: the share of the economically active population employed in agriculture, fishing and forestry decreased to 40%, the share of the urban population in the total mass increased to 28%, the number of industrial workers - almost seven times (the population as a whole - 1.5 times). Exports increased 4 times, imports - 9 times, the gross national product since 1865 - 2.5 times3.

The main prerequisites for the creation of a large capitalist industry in Norway were the availability of rich natural resources, both raw materials (forests, minerals) and energy (a huge number of waterfalls); the elimination of mercantilist and protectionist remnants of the times of absolutism, up to complete freedom of foreign trade (customs tariff of 1873) and between the United Kingdoms (customs convention of 1874 - mellomrikslov); finally, which began in the last quarter of the 19th century. an influx of capital into Norway from abroad, prelude of all from England. Scientific discoveries were of great importance for the transformation of the country's industry, and, most importantly, their widespread practical implementation - steam engines (saw, steamer, steam locomotive), mechanical and chemical cellulose, obtaining nitric acid from the air, food preservation, harpoon gun, etc. .

A characteristic feature of industrialization in Norway was the active role of the bourgeois state. Professing the ideology of economic liberalism, i.e., the principled non-interference of the state in economic life, the Norwegian ruling circles, with the help of their ideologists - lawyers and professors - greatly modified it in relation to local conditions (the decisive predominance of small-scale production, a sparse population, an acute shortage of capital, the usual authority officials, bureaucracy). This is how the “Norwegian system” of economic liberalism developed in the 1950s and 1970s: the initiative of new large enterprises and their initial financing came from directly interested individuals, groups and entire communes, but the state actively helped them, acting as an organizer and, in particular, as a contractor. The enterprises themselves, even in the case of the decisive participation of the same state, invariably received a private entrepreneurial form (joint stock company)4.

Another feature of Norwegian industrialization, at least at its initial stage, was the leading role of the external market in comparison with the narrow internal one. In the first place, industries that worked for export were industrialized. This happened in the second half of the 19th century. with the timber and woodworking industries, whose enterprises were built at the mouths of raftable rivers. These were, as a rule, large factories that operated both on the direct use of the power of water, and with the use of steam engines operating on their own fuel - sawdust. Since the 70s, the production of mechanical wood pulp began in Norway, and in the 80s of the XIX century. - a tashka of chemical pulp for making paper. It was in the pulp and paper industry of Norway that one of the first major companies that gained pan-European fame, Borregaard, was formed.

In the metallurgical industry of the second half of the XIX century. the main efforts were directed to non-ferrous metallurgy - copper-smelting and nickel-smelting plants were created. The extraction and processing of sulfur pyrite was established. In the second half of the XIX century. in Norway, a food industry developed - factories for the production of alcohol, manganese, oil mills and cheese factories were built, which at first worked only for the domestic market. The domestic market was also served by the oldest branch of the Norwegian industry - the textile industry.

In connection with the industrial revolution, the traditional sectors of the Norwegian economy, which had European significance, began to change - shipping, fishing, whaling. Such, in particular, are fish-canning and fat-rendering plants engaged in the processing of prey from fishing and whaling ships. In the second half of the XIX century. Norwegian ships increasingly served international traffic; the volume of freight grew rapidly after the abolition of the British Navigation Act in 1850 and the transition of all developed countries to free trade. In 1880, the Norwegian fleet numbered 8,100 ships and ranked third in the world in terms of tonnage. The growth of the Norwegian fleet in the 60-70s was still due to the sailing fleet. The growth of sailing tonnage continued until 1890, mainly due to medium - from 500 to 1000 tons - and large - from 1000 to 2000 tons - vessels. However, in the 90s, steamboats began to crowd out sailboats. The total number of sailing ships and their total tonnage decreased. The age of the sailing fleet was coming to an end - it could not be extended by the sailing giants that appeared in the 80s (2-4 thousand tons). If in 1870 the tonnage of steamships was negligible in comparison with sailing tonnage, then in 1900 steamships already accounted for about a third of the total Norwegian tonnage5.

Table 1. Norwegian fleet in 1860-1900 (source: Historisk statistikk 1968, p. 363 (tab. 175)

Fishing also continued to develop rapidly: the sales market grew both in Norway itself and in other European countries. Spain, Portugal and Italy continued to be the main consumers of Norwegian fish. Fishing gear also changed - new nets made of more durable materials were introduced, and traps began to be used much more. By the end of the XIX century. the first motorcycles with gasoline engines appeared. Thanks to this, the range of voyages of ships, which now did not depend on the whims of the wind, increased sharply. A leap in the development of whaling was the invention in 1868 by the sailor Sven Foyn from Westhall of a harpoon gun, which made it possible to keep a wounded whale on a leash. At first, the whalers launched active fishing along the Norwegian coast, but here their interests clashed with the interests of fishermen (whales drove flocks of fish to the shore, and a decrease in the number of these marine animals threatened to reduce fish catches). In 1904, the Storting banned whaling off the Norwegian coast, and whaling moved to the coast of Antarctica.

Industrialization and the general revival of business life urgently required the improvement and improvement of means of transport and communication. Highways, tunnels and bridges were built throughout the country. After 1870, about 200-300 km of paved roads were built annually. The highways connected Estland and Vestland separated by mountains. Second half of the 19th century In Norway, it also became a period of rather rapid construction of railways, especially difficult in the conditions of a mountainous country indented by fiords. The first train between Christiania and Eidsvoll was launched in Norway on September 1, 1854. This railway was built by an English company under the direction of engineer Robert Stephenson, son of the famous inventor. By the end of the 60s, there were six small railways in the country with a total length of 360 km, and by the end of the 19th century. the railway network totaled 2 thousand km, i.e., still less than in a relatively small area of ​​Denmark, not to mention Sweden6. If at first the railway construction was given to foreign companies, then later the state actually took all the construction into its own hands. The following figures (in km) testify to the scope of the relevant work (see table below). Despite the large construction of railways and highways, coastal shipping remained the main form of inland transport.

Source: Historisk statistikk 1968, s. 410 (tab. 200); ibid., s. 415 (tab. 205)

Important changes took place in the organization of communications. In 1854, the first Norwegian postage stamp appeared. On January 1, 1855, the first electric telegraph line was launched in Norway, and already in 1870 their total length reached 5700 km. As in most European countries, both post and telegraph became a state monopoly. The Arctic town of Hammerfest was the first in Norway to receive street lighting already in the early 90s. With the introduction of electricity, urban transport began to change: in 1894, the first tram was launched along the streets of Christiania.

rapidly in the last decades of the nineteenth century. the turnover of Norwegian foreign trade grew, with the UK remaining Norway's main partner. The traditional export items in Norway were wood, metal, fish, as well as the provision of freight services by the Norwegian merchant fleet for other countries. In general, it was these four industries that accounted for almost all exports and provided about a quarter of the national income. Under the prevailing conditions, industrial capital pushed aside and subjugated commercial capital: the industrialists took wholesale trade into their own hands. In Norway, where there was an acute shortage of free capital, private joint-stock banks arose (the first - in 1848), lending to industry, shipping, foreign trade, in 1899 there were already 557 of them. The establishment of capitalism in Norway allowed it to further stabilize the monetary systems. Following Sweden and Denmark, Norway moved in 1875 from the silver to the gold standard: the place of the silver riksdaler was taken by the gold crown, equal in value to one quarter of the former riksdaler and consisting of 100 ore (decimal system). The main means of circulation were new banknotes, freely exchangeable for gold at a fixed denomination. The transition to the gold standard was accompanied by the Scandinavian Monetary Union of 1875, the first major act of economic cooperation between the Nordic countries. The participants agreed on a single gold standard and on the free circulation of their coins (in 1901-1905 also banknotes) within Scandinavia.

An important feature of the development of the Norwegian economy in the last decades of the XIX century. began the import of capital, primarily English, as well as in smaller volumes - German and French. For Norway, in comparison with other Scandinavian countries, the import of capital was of much greater importance, since it was much poorer than its neighbors. As already mentioned, the British financed the construction of the first railways in Norway. The largest Norwegian enterprise "Borregor" at the end of the XIX century. actually belonged to the British.

Having entered the time of capitalist development, Norway strengthened its ties with Western European capitalism as a whole. Beginning with the economic crisis of 1857, Norway began to simultaneously experience global cyclical crises of overproduction.

Already in the 1960s and 1970s, the number of the smallest enterprises with the number of workers down to a thread of people began to decline8. In the 1990s, large industrial enterprises practically monopolized the production or sale of certain types of products throughout the region or even the entire country. At the same time, the first cartels arose, but on the whole Norway was still in the pre-monopoly stage of capitalism9.

Norwegian agriculture by the beginning of the period under review was still primitive and weakly involved in commodity-money relations. The bulk of the peasants were small landowners who did not exploit the labor of others. But in agriculture by this time there were already small capitalist farms: the prosperous peasantry and the townspeople who owned rural estates exploited farm laborers and husmens. In the second half of the XIX century. commodity-money relations quickly penetrated Norwegian agriculture, as the growth of industry, cities and workers' settlements increased the demand for agricultural products. The impetus for the development of agriculture in the country was given by the rise in prices for products in the 50-70s of the XIX century, it was during this period that the commodification of this sector of the economy was completed: the peasants produced more and more for sale, achieved a further increase in the yield and productivity of livestock. New methods of field cultivation were introduced, fertilizers began to be applied to the dash, and in the last quarter of the 19th century. the number of agricultural machines grew rapidly (for example, reaper mowers - 27 times)10. Norway was already three-quarters supplying itself with grain.

Unlike many countries of Western and Eastern Europe, in Norway the main remnants that hindered the development of capitalism in agriculture were not feudal, but pre-feudal, patriarchal-communal: the stripedness of arable lands and meadows that were in individual possession, and the collective neighboring ownership of forests, pastures and other lands. The division of the Collective Estates and the consolidation of the striped: individual estates took place much more slowly in Norway than in Denmark and even in Sweden. However, the agrarian revolution was greatly accelerated by the enclosure law of 1857; from now on, enclosures were made by force at the request of at least one co-owner. Already in the 1990s, Norwegian agriculture was perceived by visiting Russian specialists as exemplary in many respects11.

The fall in European bread prices, caused by the cheaper delivery of grain from across the ocean, forced large farmers to reorganize production, introduce rationalization and even mechanization. Farmers, especially large ones, began to reorient themselves from grain farming to animal husbandry, an industry where foreign competition was weaker and the price level was more stable. In Norway, as in other Scandinavian countries, capitalist livestock farms and dairy farms are springing up. In the 80s, the first oil mills with a mechanical centrifuge appeared in Norway, the peasants created marketing and consumer cooperatives. The interest in increasing production and improving the quality of products, in using advanced methods forced the peasants to improve their general educational and applied knowledge. Agricultural schools were opened throughout Norway (the Higher Agricultural School near Oslo - back in 1859 at government funds).

The process of commodification of agriculture inevitably accelerated the stratification of the peasantry, which in the conditions of Norway has long been very heterogeneous in terms of property, ousted the poorest part of the rural population, especially the Husmens, into the cities. The share of the urban population has been constantly increasing. This is evidenced by the following data:

Source: Historisk statistikk 1968, s. 33 (tab. 13)

Particularly striking was the growth in the population of the capital, Christiania, from 30,000 inhabitants in 1855 to 228,000 in 1899, a third of the entire urban population. If at the beginning of the century industrial production fed only 6% of the country's population, then in a hundred years - 29%; trade in 1801 employed 2% of the population, and in 1900 almost 15%12.

The most important among the social consequences of industrialization was the growth of the industrial proletariat. However, this growth was not continuous: in severe crisis years, for example, in the late 1870s and early 1880s or in the first half of the 1890s, the total number of workers decreased, recovering during the years of economic recovery. The industrial revolution led to the fact that the total number of workers employed in the "land" industries, by 1885, exceeded the number of merchant seamen. In connection with the development of railway transport, the detachment of railway workers increased. The growth of the Norwegian working class in the second half of the 19th century. characterize the following data (in thousand people):

Source: Historisk statistikk 1968, s. 77 (tab. 52); s. 410 (tab. 200)

The growth of the ranks of the proletariat was slowed down by mass emigration, primarily to North America. Emigration was facilitated in the 1940s and 1950s by religious and then political persecution, and at the end of the 1960s by crop failures and the agrarian crisis of the 1980s. The bourgeois restructuring of agriculture intensified the emigration movement, the apogee of which fell just at that time. For example, in 1882 alone, more than 30,000 Norwegians emigrated. According to rough estimates, from 1836 (the beginning of emigration) to 1915, about 750 thousand people left Norway - a huge figure relative to the total population (see above). In 1910, in the United States of America alone, there were 400,000 native Norwegians and 900,000 US citizens of Norwegian descent whose parents were Norwegian.

The peculiarity of Norwegian industrialization was, among other things, that the emerging industry was located, as a rule, outside the main urban centers, and therefore the emergence of a large number of workers' settlements was characteristic of Norway. The growth of the urban population occurred not only and not so much at the expense of the working class, but at the expense of the middle strata - merchants, artisans, officials, employees, intellectuals, and freelancers. The social top of the Norwegian society, as before, was made up of industrialists, shipowners, merchants, the upper layer of the bureaucracy.

In the internal political life of Norway in the 50-60s, the struggle continued between the bourgeois-democratic camp, on the one hand, and the conservatives, on the other. She went on issues that were increasingly intertwined with each other - the democratization of the country's political life and the granting of greater rights to Norway within the framework of the Swedish-Norwegian union.

“The Norwegian petty bourgeois is the son of a free peasant, and as a result he is a real person in comparison with the degenerate German tradesman,” Engels later wrote. In the small world of the Norwegian middle bourgeoisie, as he appeared from the plays. Ibsen, "people still have character and initiative"13. This comparative democratism of the Norwegian middle bourgeoisie of the 19th century, noticed by Engels. helps to understand why in the then Norway for a long time there was no socio-political line, common in other countries, between liberals and bourgeois democrats. Their disengagement began only with the coming of the opposition to power and manifested itself in the repeated splits of the Venstre party (see below).

The situation in the 1950s was not conducive, however, to progressive political transformations. The propertied strata were absorbed and carried away by the economic upsurge and enrichment. Under the impression of the European revolutions and the Tranet movement, the bourgeois and wealthy peasants greatly improved. The liberal economic reforms of Oscar I, his concessions to the national pride of the Norwegians (to what was said in Chapter IX, we can add the establishment of the Norwegian Order to reward those who distinguished themselves), the general Scandinavian hostility of the bourgeois-liberal circles to tsarist Russia - all these circumstances for some time reconciled the Norwegians with the monarch , the union and Sweden itself.

Only by the end of the 50s, the bourgeois-democratic circles of the Norwegian city again went on the offensive - they began to demand further reforms aimed at democratizing public administration, introducing parliamentary responsibility of the government and the practical implementation of Norway's equality with Sweden. The leader of the bourgeois democrats, one of the most prominent political figures in Norway in the second half of the century and the founders of the Venstre party, lawyer Johan Sverdrup (1816-1892) came to an agreement with the leader of the peasant opposition in the Storting U. G. Ueland, who continued to follow the most democratic part peasant deputies. In 1859, 30 deputies of the Storting under the leadership of Sverdrup, his young colleague Johannes Steen and Uelan created the Reform Society. This was the first attempt by the opposition to organize itself, and not just within the walls of parliament, but on a national scale - with local branches of society. The political program of the Reform Society was to demand the annual convening of sessions of the Storting, further expansion of the rights of local self-government, the introduction of jury trials, the reform of public education and the separation of church from school. The ultimate goal of Sverdrup and his supporters continued to be the creation of a government responsible to parliament, that is, the introduction of parliamentarism. The entire right-wing, conservative press took up arms against the Reform Society, demagogically accusing Sverdrup of violence, since he defended the principle of subordination of the minority to the majority when voting on program issues. A few years later, the Reform Society collapsed. Its significance as the forerunner of the Venstre party was that it contributed to the activation of the peasant-democratic opposition and its rallying around the "triumvirate" - the leaders of the city's democrats: J. Sverdrup, J. Steen and the leader of the peasants U. G. Wheland.

At the turn of the 1950s and 1960s, the issue of the Swedish-Norwegian union escalated again, and, unlike the previous period, the struggle unfolded between the Storting, on the one hand, and the Norwegian and Swedish governments, on the other. The internal political struggle in Norway and the struggle of the Norwegians for complete equality with Sweden, thus, seemed to be merged, despite the fact that the points of view of both the Norwegian conservatives and the Swedish chauvinists, who insisted on Norway's greater dependence on Sweden, were different. Now the most pressing issue was the preservation of the royal governorship in Norway - a humiliating position for the country, clearly showing its dependent position, although Norwegians have been governors since the 1930s. The Norwegian democrats rightly regarded the post of governor not only as a symbol of subordination to Sweden, but also as one of the strongholds of the power of the conservatives.

It was at this time that public opinion in Norway was clearly divided on the question of the union. The conservative wing of the bourgeoisie and officials saw the danger of revolution in the very upholding of the principle of Norway's independence. Scandinavian ideas (see ch. IX) resonated with Norwegian conservatives partly because these figures saw closer rapprochement with Sweden as a guarantee against such a revolution. Contributed to the strengthening of pro-unionist sentiments in Norway and promoted by the press bogey of the Russian threat to Northern Europe. It was during the Crimean War, in 1854, for the first time, at the initiative of the Norwegian conservative circles and with the support of the liberals, the authorities began to celebrate the day of November 4 - the adoption of the union with Sweden by the Storting in 1814 (see Chapter VIII) - instead of May 17. The conservative wing of the Storting was ready to meet the new Swedish claims in the sense of a closer merger of both countries, which led Norway to even greater subordination to the Swedes. The conservatives under the leadership of K. X. Schweigor (the younger) rallied, seeking to strengthen the royal power and such a change in Riksakt that would establish a greater centralization of power in both Norway and Sweden to counteract the "common people".

In 1859, the Storting passed a law abolishing the office of governor. Shortly before that, King Charles XV (1859-1872), who had ascended the throne following the example of Oscar I, was ready to make concessions to the Norwegians and tacitly approved the new law so as not to aggravate the situation. However, the decision of the Storting for the first time since 1814 caused sharp dissatisfaction among the ruling circles of Sweden, especially the noble chamber of the Swedish estate parliament - the Riksdag. Under pressure from the Riksdag, Charles XV backed down and vetoed it, and although no new viceroy had been appointed since 1856, the popularity of the House of Bernadotte in Norway plummeted. It was from this time that the fierce struggle between the Swedes and Norwegians over the conditions of the union began, which eventually led in 1905 to its break.

The Swedish Riksdag, outraged by the actions of the Storting, demanded in 1860 to create a new committee to revise the terms of the union in order to better merge both kingdoms. The Swedes demanded the reorganization of the defense, the expansion of the king's rights in military matters, the establishment of a joint parliament, and the restoration of the governorship. The Swedes protested against the supposedly unilateral change by the Norwegians of the terms of the union - the Riksakt - without the approval of the Swedish Riksdag. The Storting responded to this with a historic appeal to the king adopted on April 23, 1860, which proclaimed that "while remaining faithful to the concluded treaty, the Norwegian people have never neglected their duties towards Sweden and the Swedish people; remaining true to freedom expressed in the basic law, it will never renounce his honor and independence. At the same time, the conservative part of the Storting and the government of Norway did not reject the possibility of revising the Riksakt in the direction of a closer unification of both kingdoms, but on the condition of complete formal equality of the parties.

In 1861, the Swedish Prime Minister De Geer put forward a proposal to revise the Riksakt and create a common Swedish-Norwegian parliament in proportion to the population and share of each side in public spending. This proposal was supposed to perpetuate the primacy of Sweden, and therefore it was rejected by the Norwegians. The unilateral liquidation of the vicegerency by the Storting caused lengthy disputes with Sweden throughout the 60s. The last time the Storting rejected Swedish proposals to restore the governorship was in 1871. In 1872, Oscar II, having ascended the throne, approved the constitutional change adopted for the third time, recognizing that the question of governorship concerns only Norway.

At the end of the 1960s, there was again a consolidation of the urban and peasant oppositions under the sign of a joint struggle for parliamentarism. In 1869, J. Sverdrup formed a bloc with the new leader of the peasant opposition in the Storting, schoolteacher Soren Jabek (1814-1894). A deputy of the Storting since 1845, a petty-bourgeois democrat who sympathized with the working strata of the population, a supporter of free trade, S. Jabek, in 1865, based on the Danish example, founded the organization Friends of the Peasants (Bondevennene) with a center in the city of Mandal and branches throughout the country. Until 1879, he was the editor of its printed organ, Folketidende. Yabek's program included the struggle against officials and the "monetary aristocracy", the expansion of voting rights in favor of the poor, and saving public funds. Jabek's bloc with Sverdrup and the bourgeois-democratic opposition of the city marked the beginning of the subsequent formation of the bourgeois-democratic parliamentary party "Venstre" - "Left". In addition to expanding the rights of the Storting, the opposition advocated expanding the rights of local self-government, for the complete de facto equality of Norway in union with Sweden, and against any steps aimed at merging Norway and Sweden. In 1859, the first victory was won: by 81 votes against 30, a law was passed on annual sessions of Parliament instead of once every three years.

In the elections to the Storting in 1870, the Venstres received a convincing majority and from now on they could more confidently oppose the strengthening of the union with Sweden. In 1871, the Storting rejected the proposals of a joint Swedish-Norwegian union committee aimed at creating institutions common to both countries.

The rallying of the bourgeois-democratic camp prompted the bourgeois-conservative and bureaucratic circles to hasten with the creation of their own parliamentary faction, called the heire - right as opposed to the venstra. Their leader was K. X. Shveigor (junior). Naturally, in the 1960s and 1970s these parliamentary groupings were not yet parties in the modern sense. The deputies of the Storting were united both by their social affiliation and by virtue of adherence to certain program guidelines. The very concepts of "venstre" and "heire" were first used in the election campaign of 1874.

In the 1970s, the most acute issue in the political life of Norway was the issue of parliamentarism, that is, the creation of a government responsible to the Storting, based on a parliamentary majority.

For the Venstre, the introduction of parliamentarism, since they had the majority of seats in the Storting, would mean a double victory - the democratization of political life and the achievement of greater independence for Norway.

Back in 1859, the representative of the bourgeois democrats, K. Motzfeldt, submitted to parliament a bill on admitting members of the government to meetings of the Storting with an advisory vote, which was to be the first step towards the responsibility of ministers to the Storting. The conservative wing of the Storting strongly opposed the establishment of "the tyranny of the majority", as one of the leaders of the conservatives, professor of political economy T. H. Askehogue, said. The conservatives supported the government, headed by the lawyer F. Stang from 1861 to 1880. The struggle that flared up between the liberal-democratic majority of the parliament - venstre and the conservatives - höyre, who were supported by F. Stang, ended in victory for the left. In 1870, the Storting by a majority of votes (80 against 29) adopted a bill on the admission of ministers to parliamentary debates, that is, it changed the corresponding article of the constitution. On the advice of F. Stang, the king vetoed.

In 1874, after new elections, the controversial law was adopted for the second time, and in 1877 for the third time, but minor editorial changes formally gave the government reason to consider this adoption the second. The conservatives, seeing that power might slip out of their hands, launched a furious propaganda in the press, arguing that the Sverdrup bill was leading Norway to socialism and a republic, believing that this would frighten the backward part of the peasantry. However, the elections of 1879 brought a new victory to the Venstra, and the bill was adopted for the third, and in fact for the fourth time in 1880 by 92 votes against 20, and this time even some members of the Hoire party voted for it. King Oscar II, under the influence of F. Stang, refused to approve the law this time as well. The king's veto was announced in the Storting, and J. Sverdrup, elected its chairman, proposed to adopt a resolution declaring the law valid on the basis of the corresponding article of the constitution, which was adopted on June 9, 1880.

However, the Norwegian government refused to recognize the law as valid, because, in its opinion, the law changed the constitution and therefore needed the approval of the king. The conservative jurists of the University of Christiania, to whom the matter was referred, argued for their part that the royal veto was absolute in constitutional matters. The parliamentary struggle over the admission of ministers to the debate did not leave indifferent the masses of the townspeople, whose sympathies were on the side of the Venstre. Thousands of demonstrations welcomed Yu. Sverdrup, liberal-democratic deputies throughout the country were met with honors. For some time, June 9 became a kind of holiday. The venstre's radical parliamentary program gave them, especially outside of Norway, a reputation as republicans.

Disagreements on these issues in the government itself led to the resignation of the more moderate conservative F. Stang. Christian August Selmer, a staunch conservative and a supporter of strengthening the position of royal power, became prime minister. The reactionary policy of the Selmer government aggravated the contradictions between the liberal-democratic camp and the conservatives16. Already in 1880, the Storting demanded that members of the government be brought to justice, on whose initiative the king imposed a veto. However, the Supreme Court (Riksretten)17 sided with the king. The Selmer government continued to reject the bills adopted by the Storting: on the democratic reorganization of the army and on payment from state funds for volunteer militia units that had not been ordered by the king for a year. Both bills clearly had anti-unionist aims. In 1881, the government rejected a bill to lower the property requirement for voters.

The elections of 1882, which, by the way, were unusually active18, gave the Venstra 83 seats in parliament, while the Conservatives and Moderates were left with only 31 seats19. The Lagting, in particular, now consisted of only members of the Venstre party. The new Storting again put forward a proposal to initiate legal proceedings against the government. On March 30, 1883, Odelsting presented the indictment, and on May 18, the Supreme Court began hearing the case. The process lasted about a year and ended with the recognition of almost all cabinet members guilty of "anti-people" actions, abuse of the royal veto, and failure to attend Storting meetings. The court sentenced them to forfeit their portfolios. The situation in the country worsened, as the ruling circles expressed fears that if the king refused to recognize the decision of the court, a republic would be proclaimed in the country and the union with Sweden would be broken. Under the circumstances, Oscar II considered it good not to take risks. On March 11, 1884, Prime Minister Selmer received his resignation. The prime minister was first K. Schweigor, and then - E. Stang (junior) - moderate conservatives. However, their position was precarious.

On June 24, 1884, the king finally gave in, entrusting the formation of the cabinet to the leader of the Venstra J. Sverdrup. On July 2 of the same year, the first government responsible to it, based on the liberal democratic majority of deputies, took its places in the Storting. The principle of bourgeois parliamentarianism triumphed in Norway, thus earlier than in Denmark and Sweden. From now on, her dependence on the king, and therefore on Sweden, was significantly weakened. In the person of the Venstre party, the Norwegian petty-bourgeois, to a large extent peasant, democracy, which was historically progressive despite all, in Lenin's words, "petty-bourgeois narrow-mindedness," won.

It was in 1884 that the Venstre and Höyre parties were finally formed as national parties, with their own representation in parliament. The "Friends of the Peasants" societies created by Jabek were mainly local branches of the Venstre party. It was followed by representatives of the intelligentsia: lawyers, school teachers, radical students, as well as many entrepreneurs. The most prominent ideologists of the party were the poet Bjornstjerne Bjornson and the historian Ernst Sare. The Venstre Party also exerted a certain influence on the workers (see below). The composition of the party was thus extremely heterogeneous, which soon led to a split. Emil Stang (1834-1912), son of Frederik Stang, a lawyer from Kristiansand, became the leader of the conservative Höire party. The social base of the party was not only the bureaucratic and bureaucratic circles, but also the big and middle bourgeoisie, the prosperous peasantry. As you can see, the social base of both parties partly coincided.

The first government of the Venstre party (1884-1889) carried out a number of reforms: suffrage was expanded (1884), a jury trial for criminal cases was introduced (1887), the army was reorganized on a more democratic basis (laws of 1885 and 1887). The management of elementary schools was transferred from the hands of the pastors to the hands of elected school boards. In 1885, after a fierce discussion in the press, the artificially recreated "rural language" ("lansmol") was equated in morals with the language of the townspeople - the Danish-Norwegian "state language" ("riksmol"). The language dispute, however, did not subside (see Chapter XVI).

Nevertheless, the victory of the Venstre party turned out to be fragile due to the growing disagreements in it. The left wing of the party, representatives of the urban middle strata, turned out to be dissatisfied even with the first measures of Sverdrup. The reform carried out in 1884 to expand the electoral right retained the property qualification. The right to vote was given to those who had a certain taxable income (500 kroons in rural areas, 800 kroons in cities). The number of voters increased by 38,500 people, but another 224,000 people, that is, 70% of adult men, were left without a vote. In particular, the bulk of the workers were not allowed to vote (see below). Representatives of the progressive intelligentsia - Henrik Ibsen, Bjornstjerne Bjornson, Alexander Hjelland - were dissatisfied with the influence of clerical circles on Sverdrup (Sverdrup included his nephew, the pastor, in the government).

In 1888, the Venstre split into radical, or pure, Venstre, headed by Johannes Steen (1827-1906), and moderate Venstre, headed by Sverdrup, who died in 1892. formed a new cabinet headed by E. Stang. However, the Conservative government lasted only until 1891, when in the elections the pure Venstres won 65 seats, the Höire 35, and the moderate Venstres 14. The new government of clean venstres was headed by Johannes Steen.

Once in power, the pure venstre put forward a program aimed at establishing an independent consular service for Norway, which was to be run by the Norwegian foreign minister, not Sweden. Høire, for their part, advocated the creation of a unified unionist foreign policy and consular service with full equality for Norwegians and Swedes and under the leadership of a single Swedish-Norwegian foreign minister. Sweden, where at that time the conservative, chauvinistic government of E. G. Busström was in power, agreed only to alternately filling the post of general minister of foreign affairs, demanding in return significant concessions from the Norwegians in constitutional, customs and military matters. The clean venstre program in Norway was directly dictated by the global foreign economic aspirations of the Norwegian commercial and shipping bourgeoisie and was imbued with the spirit of bourgeois nationalism, which played a progressive role at that time. V. I. Lenin later wrote: "... despite the extremely wide autonomy enjoyed by Norway (its own Diet, etc.). Friction between Norway and Sweden existed continuously, and the Norwegians did their best to throw off the yoke of the Swedish aristocracy "

A new aggravation of disputes between Sweden and Norway over the terms of the union occurred in the mid-80s, immediately after the victory of parliamentarism in Norway. In 1885, the Riksdag crushed Articles 11 and 12 of the Swedish constitution, significantly limiting the foreign policy prerogatives of the king in favor of the Prime Minister of Sweden and the Minister of Foreign Affairs, that is, in favor of the Swedish Council of State (government). This deprived the king of Sweden and Norway of the right to direct the foreign policy of the United Kingdom. Now diplomatic relations were completely under the jurisdiction of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, responsible not to the Swedish-Norwegian king, but to the Swedish Riksdag. The reform strengthened the position of Sweden and clearly diminished the interests of Norway. The weight of Sweden increased in the mixed council of ministers for foreign affairs (ministerielle stadsråd), where there were now three Swedes - the prime minister, the minister of foreign affairs as a rapporteur and another Swedish minister - against one Norwegian prime minister. The negotiations that began between the Swedish and Norwegian representatives did not lead to a compromise, but cost the popularity of the compliant leader of the Venstra J. Sverdrup.

Norwegian demands were substantiated by a special commission of the Storting, which showed Norway's need for its own consular service. In the report of the commission, presented to the Storting on October 20, 1891, it was unanimously recognized that the interests of national shipping and maritime trade require the transfer of the consular service to the full disposal of Norway and the appointment of exclusively Norwegians to the most important consular posts. On March 1, 1892, the Storting adopted a resolution that the organization of its own consular service did not violate the interests of the union at all and was subject to the competence of the Norwegian government22. On March 10, the Storting voted loans for the creation of the Norwegian consular service. However, King Oscar II vetoed this decision. On March 14, 1892, the Swedish Riksdag announced the continuity of diplomatic and consular issues. The failure of 1892 prompted the government of J. Steen to resign. He was replaced by the conservative cabinet of E. Stang, who advocated new negotiations with Sweden.

The Norwegian venstres were in favor of changing the form of the union: they believed that the union should be limited to cooperation between Norway and Sweden in the defense of the peninsula and that they should have a common king. The creation of Norwegian consulates was considered by the venstre as a kind of minimum program, their maximum program at that moment was the creation of the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, responsible only to the Storting. At the same time, some of the Venstre ideologists - a prominent liberal publicist, international lawyer Sigurd Ibsen (son of the great Norwegian writer) and the famous Norwegian historian Ernst Sars - saw the final goal of the struggle of the Norwegian people in the complete dissolution of the union23. The conservative hoeire advocated the strengthening of the union, for the preservation of a common ministry of foreign affairs, subject to greater equality of partners, but in the consular program they approached the venstre: the interests of Norwegian shipowners, both small and large, coincided here. Unlike the radicals, the conservatives did not want to escalate with Sweden and advocated the solution of controversial problems through negotiations.

Norway also took a number of auxiliary measures aimed at solving the consular problem. In 1893, the Storting refused loans for the maintenance of the Swedish-Norwegian consulate in Vienna as completely useless for Norway, which was determined in the budget for 1894. In addition, the Storting refused to pay the Norwegian share in the secret fund of the Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At the same time, the Storting decided to remove the union sign from the Norwegian flag, the civil list (annual content) of the king was reduced from 336 thousand crowns to 156 thousand, and the civil list of the crown prince - from 80 thousand to 30 thousand crowns.

In 1894-1895. Swedish chauvinists in the Riksdag launched a counteroffensive: calls began to be heard from Sweden for the use of force in the event of any unilateral steps by the Norwegians. In 1894, the Riksdag voted war credits - clearly against Norway, and the following year a resolution was adopted demanding a decisive revision of the terms of the union in favor of further strengthening Norway's dependence on Sweden and the rapprochement of both kingdoms. Under pressure from protectionist circles, the Riksdag also denounced the Customs Convention (Mellomriksloven) with Norway in 1874 as allegedly unilaterally beneficial to the latter.

The threat from Sweden reduced the popularity of the radical, pure Venstre, who advocated decisive action. In the elections to the Storting in 1894, more moderate supporters of solving the problem through negotiations with Sweden won. On November 13, 1895, the next Swedish-Norwegian committee was created to revise the terms of the union, which included seven Swedes and seven Norwegians. The Committee sat for almost three years, discussing three different options for resolving contentious issues: 1) maintaining a common Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the diplomatic service and consulates; 2) separation of consulates while maintaining a common ministry of foreign affairs, embassies and missions; 3) separation of all foreign policy bodies - ministries, embassies and missions, consulates. The Swedish representatives were in favor of the first option, while there was no unity among the Norwegians. The work of this committee also turned out to be fruitless: it was not possible to reach a compromise. The elections of 1897 again gave a large preponderance to the pure Venstra (hereinafter - simply Venstra) - they received 79 seats against 35 received by the Conservatives. On March 26, 1898, after the report of the Norwegian members of the committee to the Storting about the failure of the negotiations, the parliament for the third time adopted and enacted a law on the removal of the union sign from the Norwegian flag. This "impudent" act caused a new sharp aggravation in relations between Sweden and Norway - the Hagerup coalition government, which was striving for negotiations, was now forced to give way to the second cabinet of pure Venstres J. Steen, who was in power until 1902.

In the face of a possible armed conflict with Sweden, the strengthened Norwegian nation rallied. Venstre and Høire temporarily united around the armaments program - the navy was significantly updated and enlarged, defense loans were issued. Fortifications were built on the border with Sweden: old fortresses were modernized, new ones were built. Fortifications were also erected along the banks. The army was equipped with modern artillery. The firmness of the Norwegians prompted the Swedish government to start new negotiations. It tried to appeal to the great powers, at the same time scaring the Norwegians with the old bogey of the Russian threat to Northern Europe (those were the years of the tsarist attack on Finnish autonomy). Sweden found support at the court of Kaiser Germany, while in St. Petersburg, despite the condemnation of the Norwegian "republicans", they resolutely refused any support for the warlike intentions of Sweden24.

In the same period, bourgeois-pacifist ideas gained particular popularity in Norway. They were ardently promoted, in particular, by Bjornstjerne Bjornson. In 1890, the Norwegian Storting became the first parliament in the world to adopt a majority resolution in favor of international agreements on the use of arbitration, that is, the arbitration of all international conflicts. At the same time, the Storting sent delegates to the first inter-parliamentary conference, which, by the way, did this, unlike other participants, at public expense. In 1897, on the eve of the first Hague Peace Conference (on the limitation of armaments), the Storting again adopted a unanimous resolution in favor of signing treaties on arbitration. It was in recognition of these steps of the Storting that Alfred Nobel, the richest Swedish industrialist and inventor of dynamite, bequeathed the peace prize and entrusted its regular awarding to a special committee appointed by the Storting. The Committee began its activity in 1901, but, as history has shown, the Nobel Peace Prizes were not always awarded to those who deserved them.

End of the 19th century was also marked by the birth of a new and very promising factor in the political life of Norway. After the defeat of M. Trane's movement, several decades passed before the labor movement was organized on a new social basis. In Norway, as mentioned above, as a result of the industrial revolution and the beginning of industrialization, the creation of heavy and light industries, and the influx of labor from the countryside, an industrial proletariat was formed. The position of the new social class was in the second half of the XIX century. very heavy. A permanent reserve army of the unemployed, partly, however, reduced by emigration, the absence of social insurance, the extremely low level of food and housing - such was the lot of the Norwegian worker in the first decades after the start of the industrial revolution. The working day was at least 12 hours a day, women's and children's labor was widespread. So, in 1875, about 10% of commas in industry did not reach 15 years.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the first educational and charitable associations of workers (arbeidersamfund, arbeiderforeninger) began to be created, continuing the traditions of H. Halling (see Chapter IX). One of the largest organizations of this kind was the Workers' Society of Christiania. The Paris Commune and the activities of the First International had a certain indirect influence on the working-class movement in Norway. In the 1870s, following the increasing frequency of strikes (especially in 1872), trade unions were founded to constantly protect the class interests of the workers: the first of these was formed by printers in 1872 in Christiania and Bergen. At workers' meetings, political discussions began, in the course of which socialist ideas were already put forward. In Christiania, Marius Janzen, expelled from Denmark for his connection with the First International, spoke, supported by student Olaus Fjortoft. Both of them headed the Norwegian Workers' Association (Norske Arbeiders Forening). Fjortoft published on the pages of the capital's newspaper "Fram" ("Forward") the Charter of the First International, promoted the ideas of Marxist teachings.

However, the rise of the labor movement in the first half of the 70s, limited to one capital, turned out to be short-lived. By the end of the decade, many organizations collapsed or: submitted to the leadership of the Venstre party, becoming in fact its branches. A new upsurge in the labor movement began in the 1980s, when 62 trade unions were formed in Norway, some on a national scale. At the beginning of the decade, Christian Hulterman Knudsen (1845-1929), chairman of the Norwegian Printers' Union, launched an agitation for the creation of an independent party. Since 1884, under the leadership of Knudsen, the newspaper "Worth arbeide" ("Our Labor") began to appear, renamed in 1886 into "Sosial-Democratic". On the pages of this newspaper agitation was carried out for the creation and unification of workers' organizations.

In 1885, the first social-democratic association (Den Social-Demokratiske forening) was created in Christiania, and others followed its example in provincial cities, for example, in Stavanger. In contrast to them, in 1885, under the leadership of the bourgeois liberal (venstre) J. Kastberg, the United Norwegian Workers' Union (De forenede norske Arheidersamfund) was created. However, the bourgeoisie failed to prevent the creation of a party of the working class. In 1887, at a congress in Arendal, 19 workers' organizations united into the all-Norwegian political United Labor Party (Det forenede Arbeiderparti). The program adopted by the founding congress contained only general democratic demands: to introduce legislation on labor protection, to grant universal voting rights, to abolish indirect taxes. Specifically proletarian was the provision on the duty of the new party to support strikes. There were no other clear class requirements in the program. Following the example of many social democratic parties in Western Europe at that time, party membership was both individual and collective. Thus, the Workers' Party became not only a national political workers' center, but also a trade union one.

The founding of the ILP “should be considered a historical turn in the Norwegian labor movement, primarily because a decisive step was taken towards the formation of an independent class party, towards the political development of the working class as such,” notes a Norwegian communist historian26.

The Norwegian Social Democrats joined the international labor movement. In 1889, the party sent representatives to the Founding Paris Congress of the Second International, and not to a parallel congress of extreme opportunists (possibilists)27. In 1891, at the V Congress, it received a new name - the Norwegian Workers' Party (Det norske Arbeiderparti), which remains to this day. A new socialist program was adopted, fundamentally Marxist, in fact repeating the Erfurt program of the German Social Democrats. The main demands of the Norwegian social democracy, as well as other Western European countries, consisted in the introduction of universal suffrage and the establishment of an 8-hour working day. The new program included items on the acquisition of political power, on the abolition of classes and class domination. At the same time, there was no concept of the dictatorship of the proletariat.

In the last decade of the XIX century. The Norwegian Workers' Party remained rather weak. The party and the labor movement as a whole continued to follow the pure Venstres who led the anti-unionist movement - the national question obscured social problems for many workers. Since the majority of workers did not have the right to vote until 1898, the CHP did not have its own deputies in the Storting until 1903. At the same time, the ILP did achieve some success in winning the working class over to its side. The number and size of trade unions grew. More and more strikes took place and ended in victory. In 1889, a nationwide trade union organization was established, formally non-partisan, but closely adjacent to the ILP - the Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (CSO) (Landsorganisasjonen). At first, the CSO included only a small part of the working class28.

In 1892, a law on factory inspection was adopted, which established state inspection at all factories, laws on the prohibition of child labor, the regulation of night work and work on holidays. In 1894, a law on state accident insurance was passed. At the end of the 1990s, under the pressure of the working class, the next cabinet of the Venstre appointed a commission to consider the situation of the workers.

NOTES

1. Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed., Vol. 37, p. 352, 373.

2. Wasberg G. S., Svendsen A. S. Industriens historie i Norge. Oslo, 1909, s. 108-110.

3. Historisk statistikk 1908. Oslo, 1969, s. 30, 33, 77, 91, 251.

4. Seip J. A. "Det norske system" i den økonomiske liberalismos klassiske tid (1850-1870). - HT, 1959, N 1, s. 1-58.

5. Historisk statistikk 1968, s. 369 (tab. 183); s. 370 (tab. 184).

6. Liebermun S. The Industrialization of Norway 1800-1920. Oslo, 1970, p. 123.

8. Lieberman S. Op. cit., p. 186.

9. Kleven H. I. Klassestrukturen i det norske samfunnet. Oslo, 1965, s. 86.

10. Nerbevik K. J. Norsk historie 1870-1905. Oslo, 1973, p. 213 (tab. 3).

11. Kryukov N. A. Norway. Agriculture in Norway in connection with the general development of the country. SPb., 1899; Jordskifteverket gjennom 100 år 1858-1958. Oslo, 1959, s. 173-182, 383.

12. Nerbøvik K. 7. Op. cit.

13. Marx K., Engels F. Op. 2nd ed., vol. 22, p. 88.

14. Quoted. Quoted from: Clason S. Historisk redogörelse för unionsfrågans tidigare skeden. Stockholm, 1898, s. 42-46.

15. See, for example: Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed., vol. 35, p. 83; see also: Jungar S. Ryssland och den svensk-norska uoioncns upplösning. Abo, 1969, s. 40-41.

16. Kaartvedt A. Kampen mot parlamentarismen 1880-1884. Den konservative politikken under veloslriden. Bergen, 1967.

17. The Supreme Court consists of members of the Supreme Court and members of the Lagting. Tries ministers and members of parliament for misconduct.

18. 72% of voters participated in the elections (72 thousand out of 99 thousand people who had the right to vote), in the elections of 1879 - 49%. See: Historisk statistikk 1968, s. 631 (tab. 360).

19. The number of deputies of the Storting from 1815 to 1879 increased from 87 to 114 people. See: Bergsgard A. Norsk historie 1814-1880. Oslo, 1964, s. 241.

20. Lenin V. L. Full. coll. cit., vol. 25, p. 293.

21. Lenin V. I. Poln. coll. cit., vol. 25, p. 291.

22. See in Marxist literature: Piotrowski V. Walka norwegów on razwiązanie unii politycznej ze Szwccją (1884-1907). Poznan, 1974, s. 66 etc.

23. See: Sunnanå O. Johannes Steen. Statsminister og parlamentarisk førar. Oslo, 1967.

25. See also: Kan AS Neutralist traditions in the foreign policy of the Scandinavian states. - New and recent history, 1962, No. 4, p. 72-73.

26 Norges Kommunistiske partis historie. Oslo, 1963, Bd. 1, s. 7-8.

27. Wed. Engels' fears about this: Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed., Vol. 37, p. 179; vol. 22, p. 78.

28. Bull E. Norsk fagbevegelse. Oslo, 1955, s. 79 etc.

Viking Age

Period between 800 and 1100 AD we call the Viking Age. At the beginning of the Viking Age, Norway was not a single state. The country was divided into many small principalities, each of which was headed by its own prince. In 872 the Viking Harald Fairhair became the first king of all of Norway.

Many Vikings sailed across the sea to other countries. Some of them were merchants who bought and sold goods, while others were warriors engaged in robbery and murder.

Today, when we talk about the Vikings, we often think of warriors.

The baptism of Norway took place in the 11th century. Christianity replaced the ancient pagan faith.

Danish-Norwegian Union

In the XIV century, the influence of Denmark began to increase in Norway, and in 1397 Norway formally entered into an alliance with Denmark and Sweden. At the head of the union stood one common king. Some time later, Sweden withdrew from the union, but the union between Denmark and Norway continued until 1814.

Denmark ruled politics. Copenhagen became the union's cultural center and Norwegians read and wrote Danish. Norwegian peasants paid taxes to the king sitting in Copenhagen.

The collapse of the union and the new union

1814 is an important year in Norwegian history. On May 17 of this year, Norway received its own constitution.

At the beginning of the XIX century. battles raged on the fields of Europe. One of the biggest wars of that time was fought between England and France. Denmark-Norway took the side of France. And when France lost the war, the king of Denmark was forced to cede Norway to Sweden, which stood on the side of England.

In 1814 the union between Denmark and Norway broke up. Many Norwegians hoped that after the collapse of the union, Norway would become an independent state, and several influential people gathered in the city of Eidsvoll in the county (province) of Akershus. One of the goals of this meeting was to write a constitution for an independent Norway. However, Norway was forced to enter into an alliance with Sweden, and in November 1814 the Swedish-Norwegian union became a fact.

The union with Sweden was looser than the previous union with Denmark. Norway retained its constitution with some modifications and had internal self-government. Foreign policy was determined by Sweden, and the Swedish king became king of both countries.

National romanticism and Norwegian identity

In the middle of the 19th century, a direction developed in European culture and art, which received the name of national romanticism. For the followers of this direction, it was important to highlight national features, their exaltation and embellishment. In Norway, the beauty of nature was especially emphasized, and the peasant way of life was considered "typically Norwegian" way of life.

National romanticism found its expression in literature, and in the visual arts, and in music. During this period, Norwegians increasingly began to realize their national identity. Many began to develop a sense of pride in belonging to Norway and, as a result, a strong desire for their country to gain independence.

The union with Denmark lasted for centuries, and therefore the written language in Norway was Danish. The written language that we know today as "Bokmål" is the same Danish language that has been further developed.

Both Bokmål and Nynorsk have undergone great changes since the 19th century. However, there are still two official forms of Norwegian in Norway in addition to Sami and Kven.

Industrialization of Norway

In the middle of the 19th century, about 70% of the Norwegian population lived in rural areas. They were mainly engaged in agriculture and fishing. The life of many of them was hard. The country's population grew, and there was no longer enough land and work for everyone.

Cities have also changed. More and more factories were opened, and many moved from the villages to the cities in search of work. City life was hard for many working-class families. Working days were long and living conditions were poor. Families often had many children, and often several families had to share a small apartment. Many children also had to work in factories, the only way their family could survive. Many Norwegians wanted to try their luck in other countries: between 1850 and 1920 over 800,000 Norwegians emigrated to America.

Free and independent country

In 1905, the union with Sweden was broken. There had been political differences between the Norwegian Storting and the King of Sweden for a long time, and at the beginning of the 20th century, more and more Norwegians believed that Norway should become a free and independent country.

On June 7, 1905, the Storting announced that the Swedish king was no longer the king of Norway and that the union with Sweden was terminated. This led to strong reactions in Sweden, and both Norway and Sweden were on the brink of war. In the same year, two national referendums were held, as a result of which it was decided that the union with Sweden was terminated, and the new state of Norway became a monarchy.

The Danish prince Carl was chosen as the new king of Norway. He took the Old Norse royal name Haakon. King Haakon VII was king of Norway from 1905 until his death in 1957.

First half of the 20th century

By the end of the 19th century, Norway began to use the energy of falling water to generate electricity. This led to the construction of new industrial enterprises. The need for labor increased, and cities grew. In accordance with a special law, private enterprises built hydroelectric power plants, but the water resources remained in public ownership.

In 1914-1918. battles of the 1st World War thundered on the fields of Europe. Norway did not take an active part in this war, but the economic consequences of the war were felt here too.

In the 30s. of the last century, an economic crisis erupted in Europe and North America. Many have lost their homes and jobs. Although the situation in Norway was not as difficult as in many other countries, we call this time the “hard 30s”.

World War II 1939/1940 - 1945

In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, thus starting World War II. On April 9, 1940, German troops occupied Norway.

The fighting in Norway lasted only a few days, and Norway capitulated. The king and the government moved to England, from where they continued the struggle for the liberation of the country. Norway was ruled by the pro-German, not democratically elected, government of Vidkun Quisling.

There were not many battles on Norwegian soil, but many resistance groups fought against the invaders, committing acts of sabotage, publishing underground newspapers and organizing civil disobedience and passive resistance to the authorities.

Many members of the Resistance were forced to flee the country. During the Second World War, about 50,000 Norwegians fled to Sweden.

German troops were defeated on all fronts of the war, and in May 1945 Germany capitulated.

During the war, about 9,500 Norwegians died.

Recent history of Norway

After the war, the country had to be rebuilt. There was a great shortage of goods and a shortage of housing in the country. To revive the country in the shortest possible time, joint work and solidarity were required. The state strictly regulated the economy and consumption.

Shortly after the end of the war, the United Nations (UN) was formed. The main task of the UN is to work for peace and justice throughout the world. Norway was one of the first countries to join the UN. This happened in November 1945.

After the war, the United States offered European countries economic assistance. This economic aid program, called the Marshall Plan, made economic and political demands on the recipient countries. Under this Plan, Norway received about $3 billion.

In 1949, Norway and 11 other countries signed the North Atlantic Pact. This led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO. Close ties between Western Europe and the United States continue to this day.

The economic situation of Norway in the 1950s and 1960s was relatively good, and the state introduced many reforms aimed at improving the lives of the population.

In the 1960s, a number of companies expressed their desire to explore for oil and gas off the coast of Norway. As with hydroelectric power fifty years earlier, oil resources remained in public ownership, and private companies were able to buy the rights to explore, drill and extract oil in limited areas and for a limited period of time. In 1969, oil was first found in the North Sea, and from that moment Norway began to develop as an oil power. Today, Norway is one of the largest oil exporting countries in the world, and the oil industry is of great importance to the Norwegian economy.

Large popular movements were also of great importance for the formation of modern Norway. The labor and women's movements played a particularly central role here. The roots of the labor movement in Norway go back to the 17th century. However, it became more organized in the 1980s, when a large number of new jobs were created in the country. The movement gained even more influence in the 1920s. The labor movement fought for better working conditions. Among the important objectives of the movement were the reduction of the working day, the improvement of workplace safety, workers' insurance against sickness, and the right to economic assistance for unemployment.

The women's movement fought for the rights of women in society, equality between the sexes and equal opportunities for men and women. Other important areas of struggle in the women's movement include the right to divorce, the right to use contraceptives, free abortion, and the right of women to dispose of their own bodies as they please. Today, men and women have equal rights to education and employment, to property and inheritance, to health care and good health.

Norway today

Today Norway is a modern democratic state with a high level of prosperity. Most people in Norway are economically well off and have a relatively high level of education. Both men and women participate in working life. Society is governed by a series of laws and treaties that provide the population with education, medical care, and, as needed, economic assistance.

The last decades have been characterized by a rapid level of development in the field of technology and computer technology. This was of great importance for Norway as well. New jobs are being created, the content of work is changing, and the personal life of most people is undergoing changes.

Over the past decades, Norway has developed into a multicultural and diverse society.

The content of the article

NORWAY, The Kingdom of Norway, the states of Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory area - 385.2 thousand square meters. km. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. The length of the border with Russia is 196 km, with Finland - 727 km, with Sweden - 1619 km. The length of the coastline is 2650 km, and taking into account the fjords and small islands - 25 148 km.

Norway is called the land of the midnight sun because 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun barely sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north, polar night lasts almost around the clock, and in the south, daylight hours last only a few hours.

Norway is a country of picturesque landscapes, with jagged mountain ranges, glacier-cut valleys, and narrow, steep-sided fjords. The beauty of this country inspired the composer Edvard Grieg, who tried to convey in his works the mood swings inspired by the alternation of light and dark seasons of the year.

Norway has long been a country of seafarers, and most of its population is concentrated on the coast. The Vikings, experienced sailors who created an extensive system of overseas trade, ventured across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the New World ca. 1000 AD In the modern era, the role of the sea in the life of the country is evidenced by the huge merchant fleet, which in 1997 occupied the sixth place in the world in terms of total tonnage, as well as the developed fish processing industry.

Norway is a hereditary democratic constitutional monarchy. It received state independence only in 1905. Prior to that, it was ruled first by Denmark, and then by Sweden. The union with Denmark existed from 1397 to 1814, when Norway passed to Sweden.

The area of ​​the Norwegian mainland is 324 thousand square meters. km. The length of the country is 1770 km - from Cape Linnesnes in the south to the North Cape in the north, and its width ranges from 6 to 435 km. The shores of the country are washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Skagerrak in the south and the Arctic Ocean in the north. The total length of the coastline is 3,420 km, and including the fjords - 21,465 km. In the east, Norway borders on Russia (the length of the border is 196 km), Finland (720 km) and Sweden (1660 km).

Overseas possessions include the Spitsbergen archipelago, consisting of nine large islands (the largest of them is Western Spitsbergen) with a total area of ​​63 thousand square meters. km in the Arctic Ocean; o.Jan Mayen with an area of ​​380 sq. km in the North Atlantic Ocean between Norway and Greenland; the small islands of Bouvet and Peter I in Antarctica. Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.

NATURE

terrain

Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large boulder, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by a rugged relief. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west, as a result, the eastern slopes (mainly in Sweden) are more gentle and long, and the western ones, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are present, and between them there is a vast upland.

To the north of the border between Norway and Finland, only a few peaks rise above 1200 m, but towards the south the heights of the mountains gradually increase, reaching maximum heights of 2469 m (Mount Gallhöppigen) and 2452 m (Mount Glittertinn) in the Jutunheimen massif. Other elevated areas of the highlands are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnane, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks are often exposed there, devoid of soil and vegetation cover. Outwardly, the surface of many highlands is more like gently undulating plateaus, and such areas are called "vidda".

During the great ice age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of them are Jostedalsbre (the largest glacier in Europe) in the Jotunheimen mountains, Svartisen in northern central Norway and Folgefonni in the Hardangervidda region. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvenangenfjord, where small icebergs calve at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900-1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. Probably, there were several continental glaciations at that time, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, deepening and straightening of ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque U-shaped steep troughs, deeply cutting through the surface of the uplands.

After the melting of the continental glaciation, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys were flooded, where fjords formed. The fjord shores amaze with their extraordinary picturesqueness and are of great economic importance. Many fjords are very deep. For example, Sognefjord, located 72 km north of Bergen, reaches a depth of 1308 m in the lower part. A chain of coastal islands - the so-called. skergor (in Russian literature, the Swedish term shkhergord is more often used) protects the fjords from strong westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Some islands are exposed rocks washed by the surf, others reach considerable sizes.

Most Norwegians live on the banks of the fjords. The most significant are Oslo Fjord, Hardanger Fjord, Sognefjord, Nord Fjord, Stor Fjord and Tronnheims Fjord. The main occupations of the population are fishing in the fjords, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in some places along the banks of the fjords and in the mountains. In the fjord areas, industry is poorly developed, except for individual manufacturing enterprises that use rich hydropower resources. In many parts of the country, bedrock comes to the surface.

Water resources

In the east of Norway are the largest rivers, including the Glomma 591 km long. In the west of the country the rivers are short and fast. There are many picturesque lakes in southern Norway. Lake Mjosa, the largest in the country, with an area of ​​390 sq. km is located in the southeast. At the end of the 19th century Several small canals have been constructed connecting the lakes to seaports on the south coast, but these are now little used. The hydropower resources of the rivers and lakes of Norway make a significant contribution to its economic potential.

Climate

Despite its northern position, Norway has a favorable climate with cool summers and relatively mild (for the corresponding latitudes) winters - the result of the influence of the Gulf Stream. The average annual precipitation varies from 3330 mm in the west, where moisture-carrying winds first arrive, to 250 mm in some isolated river valleys in the east of the country. The average January temperature of 0°C is typical for the southern and western coasts, while in the interior it drops to -4°C or less. In July, average temperatures on the coast are approx. 14°C, and in the interior - approx. 16 ° C, but there are higher.

Soils, flora and fauna

Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is covered by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, the opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. Five geobotanical regions are distinguished: a treeless coastal region with meadows and shrubs, deciduous forests to the east of it, coniferous forests further inland and to the north, a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses higher and even further to the north; finally, at the highest altitudes - a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. Ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and - in small numbers - wolf and brown bear are found in the forests to the very south of the country. The red deer is distributed along the southern coast.

POPULATION

Demography

Norway's population is small and growing at a slow pace. In 2004, 4574 thousand people lived in the country. In 2004, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 11.89, the death rate was 9.51, and the population growth was 0.41%. This figure is higher than natural population growth due to immigration, which in the 1990s reached 8,000–10,000 people a year. Improvements in health and living standards have ensured a steady, albeit slow, increase in population over the last two generations. Norway, along with Sweden, is characterized by record low infant mortality rates - 3.73 per 1000 newborns (2004) against 7.5 in the USA. In 2004 life expectancy for men was 76.64 years and for women 82.01 years. Although Norway's divorce rate was below some of its neighboring Nordic countries, after 1945 the rate increased, and in the mid-1990s about half of all marriages ended in divorce (as in the US and Sweden). 48% of children born in Norway in 1996 are out of wedlock. After the restrictions introduced in 1973, for some time immigration was sent to Norway mainly from the Scandinavian countries, but after 1978 a significant stratum of people of Asian origin appeared (about 50 thousand people). In the 1980s–1990s, Norway accepted refugees from Pakistan, countries in Africa, and the republics of the former Yugoslavia.

In July 2005, 4.59 million people lived in the country. 19.5% of residents were under the age of 15, 65.7% were between the ages of 15 and 64, and 14.8% were 65 or older. The average age of a resident of Norway is 38.17 years. In 2005, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 11.67, the death rate was 9.45, and the population growth was 0.4%. Immigration in 2005 - 1.73 per 1000 people. Infant mortality - 3.7 per 1000 newborns. The average life expectancy is 79.4 years.

Population density and distribution

Norway was once the world's leading whaling power. In the 1930s, its whaling fleet in Antarctic waters supplied 2/3 of the world's production to the market. However, reckless capture soon led to a sharp decline in the number of large whales. In the 1960s whaling in Antarctica was discontinued. In the mid-1970s, there were no whaling ships left in the Norwegian fishing fleet. However, fishermen still kill small whales. The annual slaughter of some 250 whales caused serious international controversy in the late 1980s, but as a member of the International Whale Commission, Norway steadfastly rejected all attempts to ban whaling. She also ignored the 1992 International Convention on the Cessation of Whaling.

Extractive industry

The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. According to estimates in 1997, industrial oil reserves in this region were estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and gas - at 765 billion cubic meters. m. 3/4 of the total reserves and oil fields in Western Europe are concentrated here. In terms of oil reserves, Norway is ranked 11th in the world. Half of all gas reserves in Western Europe are concentrated in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, and Norway holds the 10th place in the world in this respect. Prospective oil reserves reach 16.8 billion tons, and gas - 47.7 trillion. cube m. More than 17 thousand Norwegians are engaged in oil production. The presence of large oil reserves in the waters of Norway north of the Arctic Circle has been established. Oil production in 1996 exceeded 175 million tons, and natural gas production in 1995 - 28 billion cubic meters. m. The main fields under development are Ekofisk, Sleipner and Thor-Valhall southwest of Stavanger and Troll, Oseberg, Gullfax, Frigg, Statfjord and Murchison to the west of Bergen, as well as Dreugen and Haltenbakken further north. Oil production began at the Ekofisk field in 1971 and increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, the rich new deposits of Heidrun near the Arctic Circle and Baller were discovered. In 1997, oil production in the North Sea was three times higher than 10 years ago, and its further growth was only held back by reduced demand in the world market. 90% of the produced oil is exported. Norway started gas production in 1978 at the Frigg field, half of which is in British territorial waters. Pipelines have been laid from Norwegian deposits to Great Britain and Western European countries. The fields are being developed by the state company Statoil together with foreign and private Norwegian oil firms.

Explored oil reserves for 2002 - 9.9 billion barrels, gas - 1.7 trillion cubic meters. m. Oil production in 2005 amounted to 3.22 million barrels per day, gas in 2001 - 54.6 billion cubic meters. m.

With the exception of fuel resources, Norway has few mineral resources. The main metal resource is iron ore. In 1995, Norway produced 1.3 million tons of iron ore concentrate, mainly from the Sør-Varangergra mines in Kirkenes near the Russian border. Another large mine in the Rana region supplies the nearby large steel plant in the city of Mu.

The most important non-metallic minerals are raw cement and limestone. In Norway in 1996, 1.6 million tons of cement raw materials were produced. Building stone deposits are also being developed, including granite and marble.

Forestry

A quarter of the territory of Norway - 8.3 million hectares - is covered with forests. The densest forests are located in the east, where logging is predominantly carried out. More than 9 million cubic meters are being procured. m of timber per year. Spruce and pine are of the greatest commercial importance. The logging season usually falls between November and April. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a rapid increase in mechanization, and in 1970 less than 1% of all employed in the country received income from forestry. 2/3 of the forests are privately owned, but all forested areas are under strict state supervision. As a result of unsystematic logging, the area of ​​overmature forests has increased. In 1960, an extensive reforestation program began to expand the area of ​​productive forests in the sparsely populated regions of the north and west as far as the Westland fjords.

Energy

Energy consumption in Norway in 1994 amounted to 23.1 million tons in terms of coal, or 4580 kg per capita. Hydropower accounted for 43% of all energy production, oil also 43%, natural gas 7%, coal and wood 3%. Norway's full-flowing rivers and lakes have more hydropower than any other European country. Electricity, generated almost entirely by hydroelectric power, is the cheapest in the world, and its per capita production and consumption is the highest. In 1994, 25,712 kWh of electricity was produced per person. In general, more than 100 billion kWh of electricity is generated annually.

Electricity production in 2003 - 105.6 billion kilowatt-hours.

Manufacturing industry

Norway developed at a slow pace due to a shortage of coal, a narrow domestic market, and limited capital inflows. The share of manufacturing, construction and energy in 1996 accounted for 26% of gross output and 17% of all employed. In recent years, energy-intensive industries have been developed. The main industries in Norway are electrometallurgical, electrochemical, pulp and paper, radio-electronic, shipbuilding. The Oslofjord region is characterized by the highest level of industrialization, where about half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated.

The leading branch of industry is electrometallurgy, which relies on the widespread use of cheap hydropower. The main product, aluminum, is made from imported aluminum oxide. In 1996, 863.3 thousand tons of aluminum were produced. Norway is the main supplier of this metal in Europe. Norway also produces zinc, nickel, copper and high-quality alloy steel. Zinc is produced at a plant in Eitrheim on the coast of the Hardangerfjord, nickel is produced in Kristiansand from ore brought from Canada. A large ferroalloy plant is located in Sandefjord, southwest of Oslo. Norway is Europe's largest supplier of ferroalloys. In 1996 metallurgical production was approx. 14% of the country's exports.

Nitrogen fertilizers are one of the main products of the electrochemical industry. The nitrogen necessary for this is extracted from the air using a large amount of electricity. A significant part of nitrogen fertilizers is exported.

The pulp and paper industry is an important industrial sector in Norway. In 1996, 4.4 million tons of paper and pulp were produced. Paper mills are located mainly in the vicinity of the vast forests of eastern Norway, for example, at the mouth of the Glomma River (the country's largest timber-floating artery) and in Drammen.

Approx. 25% of industrial workers in Norway. The most important areas of activity are shipbuilding and ship repair, production of equipment for the production and transmission of electricity.

The textile, clothing and food industries provide few products for export. They provide most of Norway's own needs for food and clothing. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers.

Transport and communications

Despite the mountainous terrain, Norway has a well-developed internal communication. The state owns railways with a length of approx. 4 thousand km, of which more than half are electrified. However, most of the population prefers to travel by car. In 1995, the total length of highways exceeded 90.3 thousand km, but only 74% of them had a hard surface. In addition to railways and roads, there were ferries and coastal shipping. In 1946, Norway, Sweden and Denmark founded Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS). Norway has a developed local air service: in terms of domestic passenger traffic, it occupies one of the first places in the world. The length of railways in 2004 is 4077 km, of which 2518 km are electrified. The total length of motor roads is 91.85 thousand km, of which 71.19 km are paved (2002). The merchant fleet in 2005 consisted of 740 ships with a displacement of St. 1 thousand tons each. There are 101 airports in the country (including 67 runways with hard surface) - 2005.

The means of communication, including telephone and telegraph, remain in the hands of the state, but the question of creating mixed enterprises with the participation of private capital is being considered. In 1996, there were 56 telephones per 1,000 people in Norway. The network of modern electronic means of communication is rapidly expanding. There is a significant private sector in broadcasting and television. Norwegian Public Broadcasting (NRK) remains the dominant system despite the widespread use of satellite and cable television. In 2002 there were 3.3 million subscribers of telephone lines, in 2003 there were 4.16 million mobile phones.

In 2002, there were 2.3 million Internet users.

International trade

In 1997, Norway's leading trading partners in both exports and imports were the FRG, Sweden and the United Kingdom, followed by Denmark, the Netherlands and the United States. The predominant export items by value are oil and gas (55%) and finished goods (36%). Products of the oil refining and petrochemical, timber, electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries, foodstuffs are exported. The main import items are finished products (81.6%), food products and agricultural raw materials (9.1%). The country imports certain types of mineral fuels, bauxite, iron, manganese and chromium ore, and cars. With the growth of oil production and exports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norway had a very favorable foreign trade balance. Then world oil prices fell sharply, its exports declined, and for several years the trade balance of Norway was reduced to a deficit. However, by the mid-1990s, the balance turned positive again. In 1996, the value of Norway's exports was 46 billion dollars, and the value of imports was only 33 billion dollars. The trade surplus is supplemented by large receipts from the Norwegian merchant fleet with a total displacement of 21 million gross register tons, which, according to the new International Register of Shipping, received substantial privileges allowing it to compete with other ships flying foreign flags.

In 2005, exports were estimated at $111.2 billion, imports at $58.12 billion. Leading export partners: UK (22%), Germany (13%), Netherlands (10%), France (10 %), USA (8%) and Sweden (7%), imports - Sweden (16%), Germany (14%), Denmark (7%), UK (7%), China (5%), USA ( 5%) and the Netherlands (4%).

Money circulation and state budget

The currency unit is the Norwegian krone. The exchange rate of the Norwegian krone in 2005 is 6.33 kroons per 1 US dollar.

In the budget, the main sources of income were social security contributions (19%), income and property taxes (33%), excise duties and value added tax (31%). The main expenditures were directed to social security and housing construction (39%), external debt service (12%), public education (13%) and health care (14%).

In 1997, government revenues were $81.2 billion and expenditures were $71.8 billion. In 2004, state budget revenues were $134 billion and expenditures were $117 billion.

The government set up a special oil fund in the 1990s using windfall profits from the sale of oil, intended as a reserve for when the oil fields were depleted. It is estimated that by the year 2000 it will reach $100 billion, most of it is located abroad.

In 1994, Norway's external debt was $39 billion. In 2003, the country had no external debt. The size of the total public debt is 33.1% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Structure

The most common agricultural cell is a small family farm. With the exception of a few forest holdings, there are no large land holdings in Norway. Seasonal fishing is also often family-based and on a small scale. Motorized fishing boats are mostly small wooden boats. In 1996, about 5% of industrial firms employed more than 100 workers, and even such large enterprises sought to establish informal relations between workers and management. In the early 1970s, reforms were introduced that gave workers the right to exercise greater control over production. At some large enterprises, working groups themselves began to monitor the course of individual production processes.

Norwegians have a strong sense of equality. This egalitarian approach is the cause and effect of the use of the economic levers of state power to mitigate social conflicts. There is a scale of income taxes. In 1996, approximately 37% of budget expenditures were directed to direct financing of the social sphere.

Another mechanism for equalizing social differences is the strict state control over housing construction. Most of the loans are provided by the state housing bank, and the construction is carried out by companies with cooperative ownership. Due to the climate and topography, construction is expensive, however, the ratio between the number of residents and the number of rooms they occupy is considered to be quite high. In 1990, on average, there were 2.5 people per dwelling, consisting of four rooms with a total area of ​​103.5 square meters. m. Approximately 80.3% of the housing stock belongs to individuals living in it.

Social Security

The National Insurance Scheme, a compulsory pension system covering all Norwegian citizens, was introduced in 1967. Health insurance and unemployment assistance were included in this system in 1971. All Norwegians, including housewives, receive a basic pension upon reaching 65 years of age. Additional pension depends on income and length of service. The average pension roughly corresponds to 2/3 of earnings in the highest paid years. Pensions are paid from insurance funds (20%), employer contributions (60%) and the state budget (20%). Loss of income during illness is compensated by sickness benefits, and in case of long-term illness - disability pensions. Medical care is paid, but all treatment costs exceeding $ 187 per year are paid from social insurance funds (doctors' services, stay and treatment in public hospitals, maternity hospitals and sanatoriums, purchase of medicines for certain chronic diseases, as well as full-time employment – a two-week annual allowance in case of temporary disability). Women receive free prenatal and postnatal care, and full-time working women are entitled to 42 weeks of paid maternity leave. The state guarantees all citizens, including housewives, the right to four weeks of paid leave. In addition, persons over 60 years of age have an additional week's leave. Families receive benefits of $1,620 per year for each child under age 17. Every 10 years, all workers are entitled to an annual leave with full pay for training to improve their skills.

Organizations

Many Norwegians are involved in one or more voluntary organizations that cater to different interests and are most often associated with sports and culture. Of great importance is the Sports Association, which organizes and supervises hiking and skiing routes and supports other sports.

The economy is also dominated by associations. Chambers of Commerce control industry and business. The Central Organization of the Economy (Nøringslivets Hovedorganisasjon) represents 27 national trade associations. It was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Federation of Industry, the Federation of Artisans and the Association of Employers. The interests of shipping are expressed by the Association of Norwegian Shipowners and the Association of Scandinavian Shipowners, the latter is involved in the conclusion of collective agreements with seafarers' unions. Small business activities are controlled mainly by the Federation of Trade and Service Industries, which in 1990 had about 100 branches. Other organizations include the Norwegian Forest Society, which deals with forestry issues; the Federation of Agriculture, representing the interests of livestock, poultry and agricultural cooperatives, and the Norwegian Trade Council, which promotes the development of foreign trade and foreign markets.

Trade unions in Norway are very influential, they unite about 40% (1.4 million) of all employees. The Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (COPN), founded in 1899, represents 28 unions with 818.2 thousand members (1997). Employers are organized in the Norwegian Confederation of Employers, founded in 1900. It represents their interests in the conclusion of collective agreements in enterprises. Labor disputes often go to arbitration. In Norway for the period 1988-1996 there were an average of 12.5 strikes per year. They are less frequent than in many other industrialized countries. The largest number of union members is in management and manufacturing, although the highest membership rate is in the maritime industries. Many local trade unions are affiliated with local branches of the Norwegian Workers' Party. The regional trade union associations and the OCPN allocate funds for the party press and for the election campaigns of the Norwegian Workers' Party.

local color

Although the integration of Norwegian society has increased with the improvement of means of communication, local customs are still alive in the country. In addition to spreading the New Norwegian language (nynoshk), each county carefully preserves its own dialects, as well as national costumes intended for ritual performances, the study of local history is supported, and local newspapers are published. Bergen and Trondheim as former capitals have cultural traditions that differ from those adopted in Oslo. Northern Norway is also developing a distinctive local culture, mainly as a result of the remoteness of its tiny settlements from the rest of the country.

Family

A close-knit family has been a specific feature of Norwegian society since the Vikings. Most Norwegian surnames are of local origin, often associated with some natural feature or with the economic development of land that took place during the Viking Age or even earlier. Ownership of an ancestral farm is protected by inheritance law (odelsrett), which gives the family the right to buy the farm even if it has been recently sold. In rural areas, the family remains the most important unit of society. Family members travel from far and wide to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations, and funerals. This commonality often does not disappear even in the conditions of city life. With the onset of summer, the favorite and most economical form of spending holidays and vacations with the whole family is living in a small country house (hytte) in the mountains or on the seashore.

Status of women

in Norway is protected by the laws and customs of the country. In 1981, Prime Minister Bruntland brought an equal number of women and men into her cabinet, and all subsequent governments have been formed on the same principle. Women are well represented in the judiciary, education, health care and administration. In 1995, approximately 77% of women aged 15 to 64 worked outside the home. Thanks to the developed system of nurseries and kindergartens, mothers can work and run the household at the same time.

CULTURE

The roots of Norwegian culture go back to Viking traditions, the medieval "age of greatness" and the sagas. Although usually the Norwegian masters of culture were influenced by Western European art and assimilated many of its styles and subjects, nevertheless, the specifics of their native country were reflected in their work. Poverty, the struggle for independence, admiration for nature - all these motifs are manifested in Norwegian music, literature and painting (including decorative art). Nature still plays an important role in folk culture, as evidenced by the extraordinary fondness of Norwegians for sports and life in the bosom of nature. Mass media are of great educational value. For example, the periodical press devotes a lot of space to the events of cultural life. The abundance of bookstores, museums and theaters also serves as an indicator of the keen interest of the Norwegian people in their cultural traditions.

Education

At all levels, education costs are covered by the state. The education reform launched in 1993 was supposed to improve the quality of education. The compulsory education program is divided into three levels: from preschool to grade 4, grades 5–7 and grades 8–10. Adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19 can receive a complete secondary education, which is necessary for admission to a trade school, high school (college) or university. Approx. 80 higher folk schools where general subjects are taught. Most of these schools receive funds from religious communities, private individuals or local authorities.

Higher education institutions in Norway are represented by four universities (in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromsø), six specialized higher schools (colleges) and two state art schools, 26 state colleges in the county and additional education courses for adults. In the 1995/1996 academic year, 43.7 thousand students studied at the country's universities; in other higher educational institutions - another 54.8 thousand.

Tuition at universities is paid. Usually, loans are provided to students for education. Universities train civil servants, clergy and university professors. In addition, universities almost completely provide a cadre of doctors, dentists, engineers and scientists. Universities are also engaged in fundamental scientific research. The Oslo University Library is the largest national library.

Norway has numerous research institutes, laboratories and development offices. Among them stand out the Academy of Sciences in Oslo, the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen and the Scientific Society in Trondheim. There are large folk museums on the island of Bygdøy near Oslo and in Maihäugen near Lillehammer, in which one can trace the development of building art and various aspects of rural culture since ancient times. In a special museum on the island of Bygdøy, three Viking ships are exhibited, clearly illustrating the life of Scandinavian society in the 9th century. AD, as well as two ships of modern pioneers - Fridtjof Nansen's ship "Fram" and Thor Heyerdahl's Kon-Tiki raft. The active role of Norway in international relations is evidenced by the Nobel Institute, the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies, the Institute for Peace Research and the International Law Society located in this country.

Literature and art

The spread of Norwegian culture was hampered by the limited audience, which was especially true for writers who wrote in the little-known Norwegian language. Therefore, the government has long been allocating subsidies to support the arts. They are included in the state budget and are used to provide grants to artists, organize exhibitions and directly purchase works of art. In addition, revenue from state-run football competitions is provided to the General Research Council, which funds cultural projects.

Norway gave the world outstanding figures in all fields of culture and art: playwright Henrik Ibsen, writers Bjornstern Bjornson (Nobel Prize 1903), Knut Hamsun (Nobel Prize 1920) and Sigrid Unset (Nobel Prize 1928), artist Edvard Munch and composer Edvard Grieg. The troubled novels of Sigurd Hul, the poetry and prose of Tarjei Vesos, and the pictures of rural life in the novels of Johan Falkberget also stand out as achievements of Norwegian literature of the 20th century. Probably, writers writing in the New Norwegian language stand out most in terms of poetic expressiveness, among them the most famous is Tarja Vesos (1897–1970). Poetry is very popular in Norway. In relation to the population, several times more books are published in Norway than in the USA, and there are many women among the authors. The leading contemporary lyricist is Stein Meren. However, the poets of the previous generation are much better known, especially Arnulf Everland (1889–1968), Nordal Grieg (1902–1943) and Hermann Willenwey (1886–1959). In the 1990s, Norwegian writer Jostein Gorder gained international recognition for his philosophical story for children. Sofia World.

The Norwegian government supports three theaters in Oslo, five theaters in major provincial cities and one traveling national theater company.

The influence of folk traditions can also be traced in sculpture and painting. The leading Norwegian sculptor was Gustav Vigeland (1869–1943) and the most famous painter was Edvard Munch (1863–1944). The work of these masters reflects the influence of German and French abstract art. In Norwegian painting, a gravitation towards frescoes and other decorative forms appeared, especially under the influence of Rolf Nesch, who immigrated from Germany. At the head of representatives of abstract art is Jacob Weidemann. The most famous propagandist of conditional sculpture is Dure Vaux. The search for innovative traditions in sculpture manifested itself in the work of Per Falle Storm, Per Hurum, Yousef Grimeland, Arnold Haukeland and others. The expressive school of figurative art, which played an important role in the artistic life of Norway in the 1980s-1990s, is represented by such masters as Bjorn Carlsen (b. 1945), Kjell Erik Olsen (b. 1952), Per Inge Björlu (b. 1952) and Bente Stokke (b. 1952).

The revival of Norwegian music in the 20th century. noticeable in the works of several composers. Musical drama by Harald Severud based on motifs Peer Gynt, Fartein Valen's atonal compositions, Klaus Egge's fiery folk music and Sparre Olsen's melodic interpretation of traditional folk music testify to the life-giving tendencies in contemporary Norwegian music. In the 1990s, the Norwegian pianist and classical music performer Lars Ove Annsnes won worldwide recognition.

Mass media

With the exception of the popular illustrated weeklies, the rest of the media are serious. There are many newspapers, but their circulation is small. In 1996, 154 newspapers were published in the country, including 83 daily newspapers, the seven largest accounted for 58% of the total circulation. Radio broadcasting and television are state monopolies. Movie theaters are mostly owned by the communes, with occasional success from Norwegian-made films subsidized by the state. Usually American and other foreign films are shown.

In con. In the 1990s, more than 650 radio stations and 360 television stations operated in the country. The population had over 4 million radios and 2 million televisions. Among the largest newspapers are the daily Verdens Gang, Aftenposten, Dagbladet and others.

Sports, customs and holidays

Outdoor recreation plays an important role in national culture. Football and the annual international ski jumping competition at Holmenkollen near Oslo are very popular. At the Olympics, Norwegian athletes most often excel in skiing and speed skating. Swimming, sailing, orienteering, hiking, camping, boating, fishing and hunting are popular.

All citizens in Norway are entitled to nearly five weeks of paid annual leave, including three weeks of summer vacation. Eight church holidays are celebrated, on these days people try to leave the city. The same applies to two national holidays, Labor Day (May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17).

STORY

Ancient period

There is evidence that primitive hunters lived in some areas on the northern and northwestern coast of Norway shortly after the retreat of the ice sheet edge. However, the naturalistic drawings on the walls of the caves along the west coast were created much later. Agriculture spread slowly in Norway after 3000 BC. During the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had contact with the Gauls, runic writing (used from the 3rd to 13th centuries AD by Germanic tribes, especially Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons for inscriptions on tombstones, as well as for magic spells), and the settlement process territory of Norway was carried out at a rapid pace. From 400 AD the population was replenished by migrants from the south, who paved the "way to the north" (Nordwegr, from where the name of the country - Norway) came from. At that time, in order to organize local self-defense, the first tiny kingdoms were created. In particular, the Ynglings, a branch of the first Swedish royal family, founded one of the oldest feudal states west of the Oslo Fjord.

Viking Age and Middle Ages

Period of peaceful development (1905–1940)

The achievement of full political independence coincided with the beginning of accelerated industrial development. At the beginning of the 20th century the Norwegian merchant fleet was replenished by steamships, and whaling ships began to hunt in the waters of the Antarctic. For a long period, the liberal party Venstre was in power, which carried out a number of social reforms, including the full enfranchisement of women in 1913 (Norway was a pioneer among European states in this regard) and the adoption of laws to limit foreign investment.

During the First World War, Norway remained neutral, although Norwegian sailors sailed on Allied ships that broke through the blockade organized by German submarines. In 1920, Norway was granted sovereignty over the Svalbard (Svalbard) archipelago as a token of gratitude for supporting the Entente country. Wartime anxieties helped bring about reconciliation with Sweden, and Norway subsequently played a more active role in international life along the lines of the League of Nations. The first and last presidents of this organization were Norwegians.

In domestic politics, the interwar period was marked by the growing influence of the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which originated among the fishermen and tenants of the far north, and then received the support of industrial workers. Under the influence of the revolution in Russia, the revolutionary wing of this party gained the upper hand in 1918, and for some time the party was part of the Communist International. However, after the breakaway of the Social Democrats in 1921, the ILP broke off relations with the Comintern (1923). In the same year, the independent Communist Party of Norway (CPN) was formed, and in 1927 the Social Democrats again merged with the CHP. In 1935, a government of moderate representatives of the CHP was in power with the support of the Peasant Party, which gave its votes in exchange for subsidies to agriculture and fisheries. Despite the unsuccessful experiment with Prohibition (abolished in 1927) and the mass unemployment generated by the crisis, Norway has achieved success in health care, housing, social welfare and cultural development.

The Second World War

April 9, 1940 Germany unexpectedly attacked Norway. The country was taken by surprise. Only in the Oslofjord area were the Norwegians able to put up stubborn resistance to the enemy thanks to reliable defensive fortifications. Within three weeks, the German troops dispersed throughout the interior of the country, preventing individual formations of the Norwegian army from uniting. The port city of Narvik in the far north was recaptured from the Germans a few days later, but Allied support proved insufficient, and when Germany launched offensive operations in Western Europe, Allied forces had to be evacuated. The king and government fled to Great Britain, where they continued to lead the merchant fleet, small infantry units, naval and air forces. The Storting gave the king and government the authority to lead the country from abroad. In addition to the ruling CHP, members of other parties were introduced into the government to strengthen it.

A puppet government headed by Vidkun Quisling was created in Norway. In addition to acts of sabotage and active underground propaganda, the leaders of the Resistance secretly organized military training and sent many young people to Sweden, where permission was obtained to train "police formations". The king and government returned to the country on June 7, 1945. Approx. 90 thousand cases on charges of high treason and other offences. Quisling, along with 24 traitors, was shot, 20 thousand people were sentenced to prison.

Norway after 1945.

In the 1945 elections, the CHP won the majority of votes for the first time and remained in power for 20 years. During this period, the electoral system was transformed by abolishing the article of the constitution on granting 2/3 of the seats in the Storting to deputies from rural areas of the country. The regulatory role of the state has been extended to national planning. State control over the prices of goods and services was introduced.

The financial and credit policy of the government helped maintain a fairly high growth rate of economic indicators even during the global recession in the 1970s. The necessary funds for the expansion of production were obtained through large foreign loans against future income from oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea.

Norway has become an active member of the UN. The Norwegian Trygve Lie, a former leader of the CHP, served as general secretary of this international organization from 1946-1952. With the onset of the Cold War, Norway made its choice in favor of the Western Alliance. In 1949 the country joined NATO.

Until 1963, the Norwegian Workers' Party firmly held power in the country, although already in 1961 it lost its absolute majority in the Storting. The opposition, dissatisfied with the expansion of the public sector, was waiting for the right opportunity to remove the CHP government. Taking advantage of the scandal associated with the investigation of the disaster at the coal mine in Svalbard (21 people died), she managed to form the government of J. Lynge from representatives of the "non-socialist" parties, but it lasted only about a month. After returning to office, the Social Democratic Prime Minister Gerhardsen took a number of popular measures: the transition to equal pay for men and women, an increase in public spending on social security. Introduction of monthly paid leave. But this did not prevent the defeat of the CHP in the elections of 1965. The new government of representatives of the parties of the Center, Höyre, Venstre and the Christian People's Party was headed by the leader of the centrists, the agronomist Per Borten. The Cabinet as a whole continued social reforms (introduced a unified social security system, including a universal old-age pension, child benefits, etc.), but at the same time carried out a new version of tax reform in favor of entrepreneurs. At the same time, disagreements in the ruling coalition on the question of relations with the EEC escalated. Centrists and part of the liberals objected to plans to join the EEC, and their position was shared by many residents of the country, fearing that European competition and coordination would deal a blow to Norwegian fishing and shipbuilding. However, the minority Social Democratic government that came to power in 1971, headed by Trygve Bratteli, sought to join the European Community and held a referendum on this issue in 1972. After a majority of Norwegians voted no, Bratteli resigned and gave way to a minority government of three centrist parties (HPP, PC and Venstre) led by Lars Korvald. It has concluded a free trade agreement with the EEC.

Having won the 1973 elections, the CHP returned to power. Minority cabinets were formed by its leaders Bratteli (1973–1976). Odvar Nordli (1976-1981) and Gro Harlem Bruntland (since 1981) - the country's first female prime minister.

The centre-right parties increased their influence in the elections in September 1981, and the leader of the Conservative Party (Høire) Kore Willok formed the first government since 1928 from members of this party. At this time, the Norwegian economy was on the rise due to the rapid growth of oil production and high prices in the world market.

In the 1980s, environmental issues took on an important role. In particular, the forests of Norway have been hit hard by acid rain caused by the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by UK industries. As a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986, significant damage was caused to the Norwegian reindeer herding.

After the 1985 elections, negotiations between the socialists and their opponents stalled. The fall in oil prices gave rise to inflation, there were problems with the financing of social security programs. Willock resigned and Bruntland returned to power. The results of the 1989 elections made it difficult to form a coalition government. The non-socialist minority conservative government led by Jan Suce resorted to unpopular measures that stimulated unemployment. A year later, it resigned due to disagreements over the creation of the European Economic Area. The Labor Party, led by Brutland, re-formed a minority government, which in 1992 resumed negotiations on Norway's accession to the EU.

Norway in the late 20th - early 21st century.

In the 1993 elections, the Workers' Party remained in power, but did not win a majority of seats in parliament. Conservatives - from the very right (Progress Party) to the very left (People's Socialist Party) - were increasingly losing their positions. The center party, opposed to joining the EU, won three times as many seats and moved into second place in terms of influence in parliament.

The new government has again raised the issue of Norway's accession to the EU. This proposal was strongly supported by voters from three parties - the Workers' Party, the Conservative Party and the Progress Party, living in cities in the south of the country. The Center Party, representing the interests of the rural population and farmers, mostly opposed to the EU, led the opposition, gaining support from the extreme left and Christian Democrats. In a popular referendum in November 1994, Norwegian voters, despite the positive results of voting in Sweden and Finland a few weeks earlier, again rejected Norway's participation in the EU. A record number of voters participated in the voting (86.6%), of which 52.2% were against EU membership, and 47.8% were in favor of joining this organization.

In the 1990s, Norway came under increasing international criticism for its refusal to stop commercial whale slaughter. In 1996, the International Fisheries Commission confirmed the ban on the export of whaling products from Norway.

In October 1996, Prime Minister Bruntland resigned in the hope of giving her party a better chance in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The new cabinet was headed by CHP chairman Thorbjørn Jagland. But this did not help the CHP win the election, despite the strengthening of the economy, the reduction of unemployment and the reduction of inflation. The prestige of the ruling party was undermined by internal scandals. Resigned were the planning secretary, accused of previous financial manipulation during her tenure as trade manager, the energy secretary (she sanctioned the practice of illegal surveillance while serving as justice minister), and the justice secretary, who was criticized for her stance on granting asylum for foreign citizens. Having suffered a defeat in the elections in September 1997, Jagland's cabinet resigned.

The centre-right parties still did not have a common position on the issue of participation in the EU. The Progress Party, opposed to immigration and for the rational use of the country's oil resources, this time gained more seats in the Storting (25 to 10). Moderate centre-right parties refused any collaboration with the Progress Party. HPP leader Kjell Magne Bundevik, a former Lutheran pastor, formed a coalition of three centrist parties (CHP, Center Party and Venstre), representing only 42 of the 165 deputies of the Storting. On this basis, a minority government was formed.

In the early 1990s, Norway achieved wealth growth through large-scale oil and gas exports. The sharp fall in world oil prices in 1998 hit the country's budget hard, and the government was so divided that Prime Minister Bundevik was forced to take a month's vacation to "restore mental balance." In the 1990s, Norway came under increasing international criticism in connection with the refusal to stop the commercial slaughter of whales. In 1996, the International Fisheries Commission confirmed the ban on the export of whaling products from Norway.

In May 1996, the largest labor conflict in recent times broke out in shipbuilding and metallurgy. After a strike that swept the entire industry, the unions succeeded in lowering the retirement age from 64 to 62 years.

In October 1996, Prime Minister Bruntland resigned in the hope of giving her party a better chance in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The new cabinet was headed by CHP chairman Thorbjørn Jagland. But this did not help the CHP to win the elections, despite the strengthening of the economy, the reduction of unemployment and the reduction of inflation. The prestige of the ruling party was undermined by internal scandals. Resigned were the planning secretary, accused of previous financial manipulation during her tenure as trade manager, the energy secretary (she sanctioned the practice of illegal surveillance while serving as justice minister), and the justice secretary, who was criticized for her stance on granting asylum for foreign citizens. Having suffered a defeat in the elections in September 1997, Jagland's cabinet resigned.

In the 1990s, the royal family received media attention. In 1994, unmarried Princess Mertha Louise became involved in divorce proceedings in the UK. In 1998, the king and queen were criticized for overspending public funds on their apartments.

Norway is actively involved in international cooperation, in particular in resolving the situation in the Middle East. In 1998, Bruntland was appointed Director General of the World Health Organization. Jens Stoltenberg served as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

Norway continues to be criticized by environmentalists for ignoring agreements to limit the fishing of marine mammals - whales and seals.

The parliamentary elections of 1997 did not reveal a clear winner. Prime Minister Jagland resigned as his CHP lost 2 seats in the Storting compared to 1993. The far-right Progress Party increased its representation in the legislature from 10 to 25 deputies: since the rest of the bourgeois parties did not want to enter into a coalition with it , this forced her to create a minority government. In October 1997, HNP leader Kjell Magne Bondevik formed a three-party cabinet with the participation of the Center Party and the Liberals. Government parties had only 42 mandates. The government managed to hold on to power until March 2000 and collapsed when Prime Minister Bondevik opposed a gas-fired power plant project that he believed could have an adverse environmental impact. The new minority government was formed by CHP leader Jens Stoltenberg. In 2000, the authorities continued privatization by selling a third of the shares in the state oil company.

The government of Stoltenberg was also destined for a short life. In the new parliamentary elections held in September 2001, the Social Democrats suffered a heavy defeat: they lost 15% of the vote, showing the worst result since the Second World War.

After the 2001 elections, Bondevik returned to power, who formed a coalition government with the participation of conservatives and liberals. Government parties had only 62 seats out of 165 in parliament. Representatives of the "Party of Progress" were not included in the cabinet, but supported him in the Storting. However, this alliance was not sustainable. In November 2004, the Party of Progress withdrew support from the cabinet, accusing it of insufficient funding for hospitals and hospitals. The crisis was averted as a result of intensive negotiations. The Bondevik government has also been criticized for its handling of the devastating earthquake and tsunami in Southeast Asia that claimed the lives of many Norwegian tourists. In 2005, the leftist opposition intensified its anti-government agitation by condemning the private school development project.

In the beginning. In the 2000s, Norway experienced an economic boom associated with the oil boom. During the entire period (except 2001) a steady economic growth was observed, at the expense of oil revenues, a reserve fund in the amount of 181.5 billion US dollars was accumulated, the funds of which were placed abroad. The opposition called for part of the funds to be used to increase spending on social needs, promised to reduce taxes on people with low and middle incomes, and so on.

The arguments of the left were supported by the Norwegians. The parliamentary elections in September 2005 were won by an opposition left-wing coalition consisting of the CHP, the Socialist Left Party and the Center Party. CHP leader Stoltenberg took over as prime minister in October 2005. Differences remain between the winning parties on EU accession (the CHP supports such a move, the SLP and the LC oppose), NATO membership, increased oil production and the construction of a gas power plant.

Literature:

Andreev Yu.V. Economy of Norway. M., 1977
Andreev Yu.V. Economy of Norway. M., 1977
History of Norway. M., 1980
Sergeev P.A. Oil and gas industry in Norway: economics, science, business. M., 1997
Vachnadze G., Ermachenkov I., Katz N., Komarov A., Kravchenko I. Business Norway: Economy and Relations with Russia in 1999–2001. M., 2002
Danielson R., Dyurvik S., Grenley T. et al. History of Norway: from the Vikings to the present day. M., 2002
Riste W. History of Norwegian foreign policy. M., 2003
Krivorotov A. Linguistics of Norway. Economy. M., 2004
Karpushina S.V. Norwegian textbook: From the cultural history of Norway. M., 2004
Russia - Norway: Through the Ages. Catalogue, 2004



Due to the dynastic ties that existed between the Norwegian, Danish and Swedish royal houses, in 1397 Norway came under the rule of the Danish crown. After the death of the Danish king Valdemar in 1375, Olaf, the young grandson of Valdemar from his daughter Margrethe, was elected the new king, crowned as Olaf Hakonarson, and Margrethe was appointed regent. She was the wife of the Norwegian king Haakon, who was the son of the Swedish king Magnus. Thus, all the Scandinavian kingdoms were under the rule of Queen Margrethe. After the early death of Olaf, Eric of Pomerania, Margrethe's nephew, was proclaimed king.

As a result of the conclusion of the Kalmar Union of Denmark, Sweden and Norway in 1397, Denmark became a hegemon state in the Baltic. Unlike the Danish-Swedish Union, which collapsed in 1523, the Danish-Norwegian Union lasted for more than 400 years. The strength of the latter was reinforced by the fact that each of the participants in the union had self-government, as well as the need for joint opposition to the Hanseatic League.

In 1537, Christian III (1534-1559) deprived Norway of the status of an independent state and abolished the Norwegian Riksrod, and the Norwegian church lost its autonomy. Norway has become a Danish province. Under Christian III in 1537, the Roman Catholic Church fell in Norway. The Reformation won in the country, which contributed to the strengthening of royal power, since the property of the church was seized in favor of the crown.

During the period of the union, Norway (largely due to military-political failures or the whims of the Danish kings) lost significant territories. So, Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides, inhabited by immigrants from Norway, were pledged to Scotland. During the wars with Sweden in the middle of the 17th century, Norway lost the eastern provinces of Herjedalen (1645), Jamtland (1645) and Bohuslän (1658).

In the 17th century, the elective power of the Danish monarchs was replaced by hereditary power, and absolutism was established. The royal law of 1665 declared adherence to Lutheranism as the state religion, the king undertook to support the principle of succession to the throne and the territorial integrity of the country. Unlike many European countries, there was no need to carry out agrarian reforms in Norway, since most of the peasants were not tenants, but owners of land. That is why Norway never had serfdom.

With the beginning of industrialization in Western Europe, the prerequisites for stable economic growth and the formation of a middle class arise in Norway, since there is a steady demand for traditional Norwegian products: primarily for timber and fish, and since the 18th century for metals: iron, copper and silver. A feature of the development of Norway was the diversity of the economic activities of the population, because agriculture was unproductive, and the peasants were forced to engage in secondary activities - fishing, logging, or earning money in the mines. Foreign trade was of great importance, since most of the timber, fish and metals were exported. As a result, starting from the late Middle Ages, economic relations in Norway cannot be considered purely feudal, since they were permeated with commodity-money relations. Along with economic growth, there was also an increase in national consciousness, especially among the urban population.

During the Napoleonic Wars (at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries), Denmark and Norway were on the side of France. The blockade by Great Britain and the countries of the anti-Napoleonic coalition led to the isolation of Norway, the decline of trade and, accordingly, the economy as a whole. After the defeat of Napoleon, the partners in the anti-Napoleonic coalition decided to transfer the territory of Norway as a military contribution to Sweden. The Norwegians opposed this prospect and convened a Constituent Assembly, at which the country's constitution was adopted on May 17, 1814. In response, Sweden launched a military campaign and forced Norway to agree to an alliance, recognizing, however, Norway's right to its own constitution. So Norway turned out to be a subordinate partner in the new union, while Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands that previously belonged to Norway remained part of Denmark. However, the position of Norway in the Swedish-Norwegian union was different than in the Danish-Norwegian union. It was a personal union, where the two states were connected by the personality of the monarch and a common foreign policy.

According to the constitution, 2/3 of the Norwegian parliament - the Storting - were to be elected from rural areas, which led to the dominance of the Venstre party, contested by the Heire party. The powers of the Storting, which met every three years, were limited, decisions could be blocked by the monarch, and parliamentary elections were carried out through electors. The government was appointed by the Swedish king. To weaken the position of the Norwegian side, the Swedish king divided the Norwegian government into two parts, one of which worked permanently in Stockholm.

The 19th century passed for Norway under the sign of economic recovery. The Industrial Revolution was imported into the country as exports spurred economic growth based largely on imports of industrial equipment and technology, primarily from Britain. By 1878, the Norwegian navy had become the third largest in the world, playing an important role in securing freight traffic for Great Britain.

The economic recovery, accompanied by the accelerated growth of the country's population (it doubled in the period from 1850 to 1920), motivated the rise of national consciousness and increased aspirations to leave the union and move on to a sovereign existence.

In addition to foreign trade in timber and fish (mainly herring), industry, hydroelectric power generation, electrochemistry and electrometallurgy have become the driving forces for development. Norway has entered an era of industrialization. At the same time, the dependence of the Norwegian economy on the world market has increased. Foreigners actively invested in the Norwegian mining industry, since Norwegian capital was still very weak at that time. With the support of the state, the road and transport infrastructure was developed, as well as means of long-distance communication. The sailing fleet was gradually replaced by a steam one, and the partnership was gradually replaced by a joint-stock form of ownership.

During this period, there was an outflow of a relatively surplus population abroad: from 1870 until the outbreak of World War I, approximately half a million Norwegians emigrated to the United States (more intensive emigration relative to the total population of the country was observed only in Ireland). Increasing competition in grain production has led to an increase in the livestock orientation of Norwegian agriculture. Agricultural cooperatives of a supply, marketing and production nature began to emerge. Fishing has been revolutionized by the use of internal combustion engines on fishing boats. The economic recovery in Norway was accompanied by the rapid development of the credit and financial system, a decrease in dependence on foreign credit, and the accelerated development of road infrastructure.

During this period, the so-called Norwegian system arose and became widespread, in which the idea and initial capital are provided by private entrepreneurs or local authorities, and then the central government is involved in the implementation. (Now this system is used in many countries and is called public-private partnership).

In 1884, as a result of the so-called constitutional conflict, the Swedish king Oscar II agreed to the demand of the Norwegian parliament to give him the authority to control the government. Thus, the principle of parliamentarism triumphed in Norway, and since then the Storting has become the main source of power in the country.

In 1883-1884, two parties dominated the political life of Norway: the liberals (Venstre) and the conservatives (Heire). The first of them relied mainly on the peasantry, and the second - on the bourgeoisie and officials. In 1882, suffrage was expanded by lowering the property qualification. Political life has ceased to be the property of the elite. From this moment, the expansion of the social functions of the Norwegian state begins: the law on the poor is being improved, labor exchanges are being created, and local authorities are deploying housing construction.

Full name: Kingdom of Norway.
Capital: Oslo.
Area: 385,186 sq. km (including water - 19,520 sq. km).
Population: about 5,085,000 people
Official language: Norwegian (Bokmål and Nynorsk), in some communes - Sami.

Official currency: Norwegian krone.

The flag of Norway is red with a large cross. Such crosses are depicted on the flags of all Scandinavian states.

The coat of arms of Norway is one of the oldest in Europe. He is over 7 years old. The lion in heraldry is a symbol of strength, and the ax is the weapon of the Vikings and the heavenly patron of Norway, St. Olaf.

The Kingdom of Norway is the northernmost state in Europe. "The way to the north" - this is how the name of the country is translated from the Old Norse language. But more often it is called the Northern Kingdom, or the Land of the Midnight Sun. In summer, in some areas of Norway, the sun does not hide behind the horizon for days, while in others, a period of white nights begins.

Almost the entire territory of the country is occupied by mountains, and the coast is indented by narrow sea bays - fjords. They go deep into the tens of kilometers. Norwegians prefer to live on the sea coast and the shores of the fjords. In mountainous regions there are places where no human foot has set foot for many years.

Norway is a happy country. In Greenland, Siberia, Alaska - permafrost, and in Norway frosts are only in the mountains, although a third of its territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle.

The seas around the Norwegian coast do not freeze because the warm Atlantic Gulf Stream comes here. It not only "warms" Norway. In the waters of the Gulf Stream there is a lot of plankton, and schools of fish follow the abundant food. For many centuries, Norwegian fishermen have been sharing their catch with all of Europe: the fish is frozen, dried, processed into canned food and fishmeal.

Nature is generous to the inhabitants of the kingdom in everything. The largest oil and gas deposits in Europe have been discovered off the coast of Norway. In the mountains there are the largest reserves of iron, titanium, vanadium, copper and molybdenum ore on the European continent. The mountain plateaus are covered with dense forests. Waterfalls cascade down from the rocks. The Norwegians have built power plants on the rivers and send cheap electricity to other countries.

Continuing the traditions of the Vikings, the inhabitants of Norway are building modern sea vessels at the shipyards, and the merchant fleet of the Northern Kingdom is one of the largest in the world. Now do you understand why Norway is one of the richest countries in Europe and the world?

Norwegians value their state independence very much. The country received it only at the beginning of the last century. The proud descendants of the Vikings were part of Denmark for a long time, and then Sweden.

The King is one of the symbols of Norway's independence. He cannot independently make important decisions for the country, but he approves them, opens parliamentary meetings, and attends holidays. Royalty is a beautiful Norwegian tradition.

International Oslo

The name of the capital of the Northern Kingdom has nothing to do with the eared donkey. “The mouth (in Norwegian - os) of the river Lo - this is how this word is translated.

Oslo is the oldest capital of Northern Europe. The city is almost 1000 years old, but it returned its name less than 100 years ago. There are few ancient architectural monuments here, but there are picturesque shores of the fjord, an abundance of greenery and parks, more than 300 lakes.

Oslo began to grow along with the construction of the Akershus Fortress. The Norwegian kings did not accidentally choose this place in the southeast of the country for their residence. The city is located among the picturesque hills, where the Oslo Fjord ran deep into the land for a hundred kilometers. Here is the warmest place in Norway. Even in February in the capital, the thermometer rarely drops below -2 °C. A little more than half a million people live in Oslo, but almost half of the Norwegians settled in the neighborhood of the capital on the banks of the Oslo Fjord.

Fortress Akershus 8 centuries. It was rebuilt many times until it turned from a fortified castle into a magnificent palace. There are halls for ceremonial receptions, a beautiful park, and the last Norwegian kings rest in the tomb of the mausoleum. Part of the fortress is occupied by the Museum of Military History of Norway, so Akershus is open to tourists.

The main street of the Norwegian capital bears the name of the Swedish and Norwegian king Karl Johan and leads from the Central Station to the Palace of the Norwegian Kings. On the square in front of the palace stands an equestrian statue of Charles himself. In Norway, this man is greatly revered. It doesn't matter that he was French and his real name is Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte. In Napoleon's army, Sergeant Jean rose to the rank of marshal. For special merits, the Swedes invited him to become their king. When it became clear that France would lose the war, the cunning Jean went over to the side of the enemy, took Norway from the Danes and gave it independence.

Karl Johan built the palace of the Norwegian kings for himself. Now the royal family lives in it. Sometimes tourists are allowed to inspect the rich chambers.

The length of the central street of Oslo is only a kilometer, but it divides the capital of Norway into two parts. In West Oslo, which stretches from the Royal Palace to Frogner Park, only native Norwegians and immigrants from Western European countries live. There are respectable cottages here, richness and chic are felt in everything.

Most of the city's population lives in East Oslo, but it is an area of ​​immigrants. Here in the schools, not only students, but also teachers are foreigners. Residential areas mainly consist of standard high-rise buildings. All peoples and races mixed up on the city streets.

Oslo is famous for its museums. To the delight of tourists, almost all of them are collected in one place - on the Bygdøy peninsula. This area is often referred to as Museum Island. Here are the open-air Norwegian Museum of Folk Life, the Viking Ship Museum, the Fram Museum, where you can see the ship of the polar explorer Raoul Amundsen, the Kon-Tiki Museum with the legendary ship Thor Heyerdahl.

Descendants of the Northern Gods. Vikings. Normans. Varangians

The Vikings suddenly broke into the life of Europe. In the middle of the 8th c. sharp-nosed boats began to moor to the shores of England, Ireland, and later France, Spain, Italy and other European countries. Bearded warriors in leather armor jumped out of them. The intruders were armed with swords, spears and battle axes. Their greed and cruelty knew no bounds. “From the fury of the Normans deliver us, O Lord!” — asked people in all churches. But the Normans, whom some nations called the Vikings, and the Slavs called the Varangians, did not worship the Christian god. They considered themselves descendants of the warlike gods of the North - Odin and Thor.

The Viking Age lasted three centuries in Europe. They not only robbed, but also laid great trade routes on the water: “Amber”, “From the Varangians to the Greeks”. The Normans collected tribute from the conquered lands, but more and more often laid cities and fortresses there. This is how Dublin was born. At the head of the ruling dynasties in foreign lands, the Vikings put their leaders-kings. It was in England and in Rus'. And three centuries later, formidable warriors quietly left the historical stage.

Now the Viking Age is reminiscent of stones carved with runic inscriptions and archeological finds. There are sharp-nosed drakkar boats that have been recovered from the seabed. And, of course, the sagas created by the ancient skald poets.

In the homeland of the Vikings, in Norway, everything related to those times is carefully stored.

Who are they?

Vikings are not one people. Among them were the ancestors of the Swedes, Danes, but most of all Norwegians. Terrible Normans are simple Scandinavian peasants who became hungry and cramped in their native land. Therefore, they united in military squads and, led by the "sea prince", sailed to conquer the world.

How did you live?

Archaeologists have found traces of many settlements. Terrible Normans lived in long communal houses and obeyed the king-leader. They were engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, whaling, fishing. One of these villages has been restored in the Lofotr Museum in the Lofoten Islands.

What gods did they pray to?

northern gods was about a lot, but the aces were considered the main ones. In the sky in Asgard lived 12 gods and 14 goddesses. The Normans followed their precepts: they obtained wealth through robbery and deceit, and took revenge on their enemies. The main god Odin promised that the brave warriors who fell in battle would get to them in Asgard. The fighter with the giants, the god Thor, showed by personal example how to sacrifice everything for the sake of victory. He fearlessly placed his hand in the beast's mouth to distract it while the other gods chained the monster.

Why were they considered invincible?

The maneuverable Drakkars of the Normans are recognized as the most advanced ships of their time. On oars and under sail, these boats sailed the seas and rivers. Viking armor made of leather bound with metal was light and durable. A helmet, forged from metal, reliably protected the head. By the way, the Vikings had horns only on ritual helmets.

The squads often included specially trained berserk warriors. These people from childhood devoted themselves to serving the god Odin, they were fluent in any weapon, they did not feel pain and fear.

But most importantly, the Vikings appeared suddenly.

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