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“If there are no ideas in the head, then you will not see the facts.”

Pavlov I.P., Selected works, M., APN of the RSFSR, 1951, p. 594.

Russian psycho-physiologist, creator of the science of higher nervous activity.

Winner of the 1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology: "for his work on the physiology of digestion, which has led to a clearer understanding of the vital aspects of this subject."

Granin D.A., Whims of my memory, M., "OLMA Media Group", 2011, p.112.

“To observe is to work, that is, to live.” He ordered these words to be stamped on the main building of the biological station in Koltushi. They were his motto until the end of days.
A few hours before his death, he felt that he was losing control of his thoughts, and asked for a neurologist to come. Having received an explanation from the doctor, he was satisfied - he calmed down, fell asleep. A few hours later he died.
There is a version according to which the dying academician described in detail until his last minutes the extinction of individual organs of his body to the students around him.
And the following dying words are also attributed to the great physiologist. When asked to receive visitors, the patient replied: “Academician Pavlov is busy. He is dying".

Stepanyan V.N., Life and death of famous people, M., "Ast"; "Zebra", 2007, p. 442.

“Physiologist A.F. Samoilov in his memoirs about Ivan Petrovich Pavlov noted: “The gift of his intuition, the gift of groping, guessing the truths in the field of complex reactions and ratios of the body is completely exceptional and one of a kind - it seems that the truth itself is coming towards him. We meet here with the gift of direct, as it were, poetic revelation ... Using the authority Helmholtz who installed one of the greatest physicists the world has known, Faraday, next to the poet Goethe as an example of poetic revelation, poetic intuition of finding the truth on the part of a scientist, I allow myself to include Ivan Petrovich Pavlov in this group. His immediate sense of truth in the sphere of the physiological functions of the animal organism really seems to be some kind of miracle, the poet's revelation.

Mozzhukhin A.S., Samoilov V.O., I.P. Pavlov in St. Petersburg - Leningrad, L., "Lenizdat", 1977, p. 148.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov wrote: “With a good method, a not very talented person can do a lot. And with a bad method, even a man of genius will work in vain.”

Pavlov I.P., Lectures on Physiology 1912-1913 / Complete Works, Volume 5, M., Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1952. p. 26.

I.P. Pavlov- follower THEM. Sechenov , in addition, he was formed as a researcher, working in the laboratory

Ivan Pavlov is one of the brightest scientific authorities in Russia, and what can I say, of the whole world. Being a very talented scientist, throughout his life he managed to make an impressive contribution to the development of psychology and physiology. It is Pavlov who is considered the founder of the science of the higher nervous activity of man. The scientist created the largest physiological school in Russia and made a number of significant discoveries in the field of digestion regulation.

short biography

Ivan Pavlov was born in 1849 in Ryazan. In 1864 he graduated from the Ryazan Theological School, after which he entered the seminary. In the last year, Pavlov came across the work of Professor I. Sechenov "Reflexes of the Brain", after which the future scientist forever connected his life with the service of science. In 1870, he entered the Faculty of Law at St. Petersburg University, but a few days later he was transferred to one of the departments of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. The Department of the Medical and Surgical Academy, which had been headed by Sechenov for a long time, after the forced relocation of the scientist to Odessa, came under the leadership of Ilya Zion. It was from him that Pavlov adopted the virtuoso technique of surgical intervention.

In 1883, the scientist defended his doctoral dissertation on the topic of centrifugal cardiac nerves. Over the next few years, he worked in the laboratories of Breslau and Leipzig, which were led by R. Heidenhain and K. Ludwig. In 1890, Pavlov held the positions of head of the Department of Pharmacology of the Military Medical Academy and head of the physiological laboratory at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. In 1896, the Department of Physiology of the Military Medical Academy fell under his tutelage, where he worked until 1924. In 1904, Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for successful research into the physiology of digestive mechanisms. Until his death in 1936, the scientist served as rector of the Institute of Physiology of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Scientific achievements of Pavlov

A distinctive feature of the research methodology of Academician Pavlov was that he connected the physiological activity of the organism with mental processes. This relationship has been confirmed by numerous studies. The works of the scientist, describing the mechanisms of digestion, served as an impetus for the emergence of a new direction - the physiology of higher nervous activity. Pavlov devoted more than 35 years of his scientific work to this area. His mind belongs to the idea of ​​creating a method of conditioned reflexes.

In 1923, Pavlov published the first edition of his work, in which he describes in detail more than twenty years of experience in studying the higher nervous activity of animals. In 1926, near Leningrad, the Soviet government built the Biological Station, where Pavlov launched research into the genetics of behavior and higher nervous activity of anthropoids. Back in 1918, the scientist conducted research in Russian psychiatric clinics, and already in 1931, on his initiative, a clinical base for research on animal behavior was created.

It should be noted that in the field of knowledge of the functions of the brain, Pavlov made perhaps the most serious contribution in history. The application of his scientific methods made it possible to lift the veil of the mystery of mental illness and outline possible ways for their successful treatment. With the support of the Soviet government, the academician had access to all the resources necessary for science, which allowed him to conduct revolutionary research, the results of which were truly stunning.

Pavlov Ivan Petrovich

(born in 1849 - died in 1936)

Outstanding Russian physiologist, biologist, doctor, teacher. Creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, the largest physiological school of our time, new approaches and methods of physiological research. Academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences (since 1907), Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences (since 1917), Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (since 1925), honorary member of 130 academies and scientific institutions. Fourth Nobel laureate in the world (1904) and first in the natural sciences. Author of classic works on the physiology of blood circulation and digestion.

“If any person achieves such significant success as Pavlov, and leaves behind a legacy so significant both in terms of the amount of data received and in ideological terms, then we are naturally interested in knowing how and in what way he did this in order to understand what were the psycho-physiological features of this person that provided him with the possibility of such achievements? Of course, he was recognized by everyone as a genius, ”said a contemporary of the great scientist, corresponding member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, physiologist Yu. Konorsky.

Pavlov himself, sincerely classifying himself as “small and medium”, repeated more than once: “There is nothing ingenious that is attributed to me, in me. Genius is the highest ability to concentrate attention ... to think about a subject relentlessly, to be able to go to bed with it and get up with it! Just think, just think all the time, and everything difficult will become easy. Anyone in my place, doing the same, would become a genius. But if everything were so simple, the world would consist of only geniuses. And there are still only a few of them born every century.

And who could have imagined that the boy Vanya, who was born in the ancient Russian city of Ryazan on September 26, 1849, would reach unprecedented heights in physiology, a science so far from the aspirations of his parents. Father, Pyotr Dmitrievich Pavlov, a native of a peasant family, was at that time a young priest of one of the rundown parishes. Truthful and independent, he often did not get along with his superiors and did not live well. High moral qualities, seminary education, which was considered significant for the inhabitants of the provincial towns of those times, earned him a reputation as a very enlightened person. Mother, Varvara Ivanovna, also came from a spiritual family, but did not receive any education. In her youth, she was healthy, cheerful and cheerful, but frequent childbirth (she gave birth to 10 children) and the experiences associated with the untimely death of some of them undermined her health. Her natural intelligence and diligence made her a skilled educator of her children, and they idolized her, vying with each other trying to help in some way: to chop wood, heat the stove, bring water.

Ivan Petrovich recalled his parents with a feeling of tender love and deep gratitude: "And under everything - the eternal thanks to my father and mother, who taught me to a simple, very undemanding life and gave me the opportunity to get a higher education." Ivan was the firstborn in the Pavlov family. He willingly played with his younger brothers and sisters, from an early age he helped his father in the garden and the garden, and when building a house he learned a little carpentry and turning. For many years, gardening and horticulture were a significant help to the Pavlov family, in which, in addition to their children, nephews were brought up - the children of two father's brothers.

Ivan learned to read and write by the age of eight, but he entered school three years late. The fact is that once, laying out apples to dry on a high platform, he fell on a stone floor and was badly hurt, which had serious consequences for his health. He lost his appetite, began to sleep poorly, lost weight and turned pale. Home treatment did not bring noticeable success. And then the godfather, hegumen of the Trinity Monastery, located near Ryazan, took the boy to him. Clean air, enhanced nutrition, regular gymnastics returned Ivan to health and strength. The boy's guardian turned out to be a kind, intelligent and highly educated person for those times. He read a lot, led a Spartan lifestyle, was demanding of himself and others. Under his guidance, Ivan acquired remarkable strength and endurance, even amused himself with fisticuffs. But most of all he loved the game of towns, which required attentiveness, dexterity, accuracy and taught to remain calm. At home, the father also built gymnastic apparatus for his sons, so that "all the extra power would go in favor, and not for pampering."

Returning to Ryazan in the autumn of 1860, Ivan entered the Ryazan Theological School immediately in the second grade. Four years later, he successfully graduated from it and was admitted to the local theological seminary, where the children of priests received certain benefits. Here Pavlov became one of the best students and even gave private lessons, enjoying the reputation of a good tutor. It was then that Ivan fell in love with teaching and was happy when he could help others in acquiring knowledge.

The years of Pavlov's teachings were marked by the rapid development of advanced social thought in Russia. And Ivan frequented the public library. Once he came across an article by D. Pisarev, where there were the words "The almighty natural science holds in its hands the key to the knowledge of the whole world." In the seminary they talked about the immortality of the soul and the afterlife, and in the literature they called for abandoning blind faith and studying the most important life problems. After the fascinating monograph of the father of Russian physiology I. Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" and the popular book of the English scientist J. Lewis "Physiology of everyday life" Pavlov "fell ill with reflexes", began to dream of scientific activity.

After graduating from the sixth grade of the seminary in 1869, Pavlov resolutely abandoned his spiritual career and began to prepare for the entrance exams to the university. In 1870, he left for St. Petersburg, dreaming of entering the natural department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. But since the seminary did not provide sufficient knowledge in mathematics and physics, Ivan was forced to choose the Faculty of Law. Nevertheless, he achieved his goal: 17 days after the start of classes, by special permission of the rector, he was transferred to the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics. True, because of this, he lost his scholarship. In this first year, he had a very hard time, and then his brother Dmitry entered the university, who, with his usual thriftiness, established their simple student life. A year later, the natural department was replenished with another Pavlov - Peter. All the brothers became scientists: Ivan became a physiologist, Dmitry became a chemist, and Peter became a zoologist, but only for the eldest did serious scientific work, continuous and all-consuming, become the meaning of life.

Ivan studied very successfully, attracting the attention of professors. Short, thickset, with a thick chestnut beard, let go for solidity, he was extremely serious, thoughtful, industrious and passionate about his studies. In the second year of study he was given a regular stipend (180 rubles a year), in the third year he already received the so-called imperial stipend (300 rubles a year). At that time, an excellent teaching staff of the faculty was formed at the natural department, where among the professors of the faculty were outstanding chemists D. Mendeleev and A. Butlerov, famous botanists A. Beketov and I. Borodin, famous physiologists F. V. Ovsyannikov and I. Zion. Under the influence of the latter, Pavlov decided to devote himself to the study of animal physiology, as well as chemistry. Ilya Fadeevich not only skillfully presented the most complex questions, truly artistically set up experiments, but also masterfully mastered the surgical technique. He could operate on a dog without even taking off his snow-white gloves and without even staining them with a drop of blood. Following in the footsteps of his teacher, Pavlov, being left-handed, learned to brilliantly operate with both hands. Eyewitnesses said that when he stood at the table, "the operation ended before it could begin."

Pavlov's research activity began early. As a fourth-year student, Ivan, under the guidance of F. Ovsyannikov, examined the nerves in the lungs of a frog. Then, together with a classmate V. Velikiy, under the guidance of Zion, he completed the first scientific work on the effect of the laryngeal nerves on blood circulation. The results of the study were reported at a meeting of the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists, after which Pavlov began to regularly attend meetings, communicate with Sechenov, Ovsyannikov, Tarkhanov and other physiologists, and participate in the discussion of reports. And his scientific work on the physiology of the nerves of the pancreas was awarded a gold medal by the university council. True, the student, carried away by research, almost forgot that the final exams are on the nose. I had to write a petition to stay "for the second year." In 1875, Pavlov brilliantly graduated from the university, received the degree of candidate of natural sciences and continued his studies at the Medico-Surgical Academy, enrolling immediately in the third year, but “not with the goal of becoming a doctor, but so that later, having a doctorate in medicine, be entitled to take the chair of physiology. He was then in his 26th year.

With bright hopes, the young scientist set out on the road of independent life. I. Zion, who took over the post of head of the department of physiology at the Medical-Surgical Academy, left by Sechenov, invited him as his assistant. At first, everything went well for I.P. Pavlov. But soon his teacher was forced to leave the academy, and Pavlov found it necessary to give up the position of assistant offered to him by the new head of the department, Professor I.F. Tarkhanov. Thus, he lost not only a great place for scientific work, but also earnings. Continuing his studies, Ivan became an assistant to Professor K. N. Ustimovich at the Department of Physiology of the Veterinary Department.

During his work in the laboratory (1876–1878), Pavlov independently performed a number of valuable works on the physiology of blood circulation. In these studies, for the first time, the beginnings of his ingenious scientific method of studying the functions of the body in their natural dynamics in an unanesthetized whole organism appeared. As a result of numerous experiments, Pavlov learned to measure blood pressure in dogs without putting them to sleep with anesthesia and without tying them to an experimental table. He developed and implemented his original method of implanting a chronic ureteral fistula into the outer covering of the abdomen. For the work done during his studies, Pavlov received a second gold medal, and after graduating from the Academy in December 1879 - a doctor's diploma with honors. In the summer, on the recommendation of Ustimovich, using the money saved with difficulty, he visited Breslavl, where he got acquainted with the work of the prominent physiologist Professor R. Heidenhain. Pavlov's research on the physiology of blood circulation attracted the attention of physiologists and doctors. The young scientist became famous in scientific circles.

In 1879, Pavlov took charge of the physiological laboratory at the S. Botkin clinic, where the famous Russian clinician invited him back in December 1878. Then, formally, Ivan Petrovich was offered to take the position of a laboratory assistant, but in reality he was supposed to become the head of the laboratory. Pavlov willingly accepted this offer, because shortly before that the veterinary department of the Medico-Surgical Academy was closed and he lost his job and the opportunity to conduct experiments. Here, the young scientist worked until 1890, achieved outstanding results in the study of the physiology of blood circulation and digestion, took part in the development of some topical issues of pharmacology, improved his outstanding experimental skills, and also acquired the skills of an organizer and leader of a team of scientists.

Twelve years of work in difficult conditions in an almost impoverished physiological laboratory was inspired, intense, purposeful and extremely fruitful, although it was accompanied by acute material need and deprivation in his personal life. Pavlov became a prominent figure in the field of physiology, not only in his homeland, but also abroad.

His wife helped Ivan Petrovich to endure during this difficult time. With Serafima Vasilievna Karchevskaya, a student of Pedagogical Courses, Pavlov met in the late 1870s. They were united not only by love, but also by the commonality of spiritual interests, the closeness of their views. They were an attractive couple. Serafima Vasilievna admitted that she was attracted by "that hidden spiritual force that supported him in his work all his life and to the charm of which all his employees and friends involuntarily obeyed." At first, love completely swallowed up Ivan Petrovich. According to brother Dmitry, for some time the young scientist was more busy writing letters to his girlfriend than doing laboratory work.

In 1881, the young people got married, despite the fact that Pavlov's parents were against this marriage, as they intended to marry their first child to the daughter of a wealthy St. Petersburg official. After the marriage, Ivan Petrovich's complete helplessness in everyday affairs manifested itself. The wife took upon herself the brunt of family worries and for many years meekly endured all the troubles and failures that accompanied him at that time. With her faithful love, she undoubtedly contributed a lot to Pavlov's amazing success in science. “I was looking for only a good person as a comrade in life,” Pavlov wrote, “and I found him in my wife, who patiently endured the hardships of our pre-professorial life, always guarded my scientific aspirations and turned out to be as devoted to our family for life as I am to the laboratory.” Material deprivation forced the newlyweds to live for some time with Ivan Petrovich's brother, Dmitry, who worked as an assistant to the famous Russian chemist D. I. Mendeleev and had a state-owned apartment, and with his friend N. Simanovsky. There was grief in the family life of the Pavlovs: the first two sons died in infancy.

Ivan Petrovich was completely devoted to his beloved work. Often he spent his meager earnings on the purchase of experimental animals and other needs of research work in the laboratory. The family experienced a particularly difficult financial situation during the period when Pavlov was preparing a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Medical Sciences. Serafima Vasilievna repeatedly begged him to speed up the defense, rightly reproaching that he was always helping his students in the laboratory and completely abandoned his own scientific affairs. But Pavlov was inexorable; he sought to obtain more and more significant and reliable scientific facts for his doctoral dissertation and did not think about speeding up its defense. Over time, material hardships became a thing of the past, especially after the award of the Warsaw University Prize to the scientist. Adam Chojnacki (1888).

In 1883, Pavlov brilliantly defended his doctoral dissertation on the centrifugal nerves of the heart. He found that there are special nerve fibers that affect the metabolism in the heart and regulate its work. These studies laid the foundation for the theory of the trophic nervous system. In June 1884, Ivan Petrovich was sent to Leipzig, where for two years he worked together with the famous physiologists K. Ludwig and R. Heidenhain. The trip abroad enriched Pavlov with new ideas. He established personal contacts with prominent figures of foreign science.

Returning to his homeland with a solid scientific background, Ivan Petrovich began to lecture on physiology at the Military Medical Academy (as the Military Surgical Academy had been renamed by this time), as well as to the doctors of the clinical military hospital, and enthusiastically continued research in a wretched laboratory at the Botkin clinic . It was housed in a small, dilapidated wooden house, completely unsuitable for scientific work, originally intended either for a janitor or a bathhouse. The necessary equipment was lacking, there was not enough money to buy experimental animals and for other research needs. But all this did not prevent Pavlov from developing a vigorous activity here.

Over the years of work in the laboratory, the colossal capacity for work, indomitable will and inexhaustible energy of the scientist were fully manifested. He was able to lay a solid foundation for his future research on the physiology of digestion: he discovered the nerves that regulate the secretory activity of the pancreas, and set up his now classic experiment with imaginary feeding of dogs. Pavlov believed that animal experiments are necessary in resolving many complex and unclear issues of clinical medicine. In particular, he sought to elucidate the properties and mechanism of the therapeutic action of new or already used medicinal preparations of plant and other origin.

Pavlov regularly reported on the results of his research on the pages of domestic and foreign scientific journals, at a meeting of the physiological section of the Society of Naturalists of St. Petersburg and at congresses of the same society. For long service in 1887, he was promoted to court councilor, and three years later was appointed professor of pharmacology at Tomsk, and after that at Warsaw University and, finally, at the Military Medical Academy itself. The scientist occupied this position for five years, before moving to the Department of Physiology, which he invariably led for three decades, successfully combining brilliant pedagogical activity with interesting, albeit limited in scope, research work. His lectures and reports enjoyed exceptional success. Ivan Petrovich fascinated the audience with his passionate speech, unexpected gestures, and flaming eyes. The American scientist J. B. Kellogg, having visited one of the reports, said that if Pavlov had not become a famous physiologist, he would have made an excellent dramatic actor. But Pavlov considered the language of facts to be the best eloquence.

In 1890, the Imperial Institute of Experimental Medicine was opened, created on the basis of the Pasteur Station with the financial support of the famous philanthropist - Prince A. Oldenburg. It was he who invited Pavlov to organize the department of physiology, which the scientist then led for 46 years. Basically, Pavlov's classical works on the physiology of the main digestive glands, which brought him worldwide fame, were performed here. The fistula method developed by Pavlov was a major achievement and made it possible to study the functioning of the glands under different conditions and food composition. The operation did not disturb the normal connections of the organism with the environment and at the same time allowed for long-term observations.

Pavlov conducted all his research on dogs. The experimental animal was nursed after the operation no less carefully than a sick person. So, when studying such an important organ as the pancreas, and creating a small stomach for the purity of the experiment, the scientist needed three dozen dogs for six months, none of which died. A clear proof of the correctness of the ideas of the scientist was the dog Druzhok, who became famous throughout the world. This was a real scientific victory for Pavlov, followed by a whole series of brilliant experiments. The scientist spoke about his experiments, observations and methods of work in the book "Lectures on the work of the main digestive glands" (1897). For this work, Ivan Petrovich became the fourth Nobel Prize winner for outstanding achievements in the study of the physiology of digestion (1904). Before him, only doctors were awarded this award. The work of the physiologist was rated as "bringing the greatest benefit to mankind." She immortalized the name of Pavlov and glorified Russian science.

On the initiative of Ivan Petrovich, a monument to a dog was erected in front of the institute building - a tribute to a true friend, assistant and full-fledged colleague at work. The inscription at its foot reads: “Let the dog, the helper and friend of man from prehistoric times, be sacrificed to science, but our dignity obliges us that this should happen without fail and always without unnecessary torment. Ivan Pavlov.

It is impossible not to note one feature of Pavlov's life path: almost all of his achievements in science received official recognition from state institutions in Russia much later than abroad. Ivan Petrovich became a professor only at the age of 46, and an academician only three years after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, although before that he had been elected a member of the academies of several countries and an honorary doctor of many universities. The scientist never received any government assistance and always acutely felt the need for permanent employees. So, in the department of physiology of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, he had only two full-time researchers, in the laboratory of the Academy of Sciences - only one, and even that Pavlov paid from personal funds. Influential tsarist officials were annoyed by his democratism. All sorts of intrigues were woven around the scientist: noble ladies-princes were constantly set on him, crying out about the sinfulness of scientific experiments on animals; dissertations of Ivan Petrovich's employees often failed; his students were hardly approved in ranks and positions; when re-elected to the post of chairman of the Society of Russian Doctors, his candidacy was voted down, despite the fact that Pavlov did a great job in this post.

But with his authority, outstanding scientific achievements, and amazing temperament, Pavlov attracted young science enthusiasts like a magnet. Many Russian and foreign specialists worked under the guidance of a talented physiologist without monetary compensation. Ivan Petrovich was the soul of the laboratory. He introduced a new form of scientific work - "collective thinking", which is now called "brainstorming or storming." At the Wednesday collective tea parties introduced by the scientist, it was required to “dissolve the fantasy” - the creative process took place in front of everyone. This is how the Pavlovian scientific school was formed, which soon became the most numerous in the world. Pavlovtsy completed almost half a thousand works, writing only about a hundred dissertations. A passionate gardener, Ivan Petrovich called his pets “jigs” for a reason. His students E. Asratyan, L. Orbeli, K. Bykov, P. Anokhin eventually became academicians, led entire areas of physiology, and created independent scientific schools.

Pavlov did not at all look like a learned cracker. He was enthusiastic about science. His wife recalled: “He loved all kinds of work. From the side it seemed that this work was the most pleasant for him, so much she pleased and amused him. That was the happiness of his life." Serafima Ivanovna called it "the boiling of the heart." Pavlov was like a small child, constantly coming up with various competitions, funny fines and rewards for employees. And Ivan Petrovich indulged in rest with the same rapture. Starting to collect butterflies, he turned into an excellent entomologist; growing vegetables, became a breeder. Pavlov preferred to be the first in everything. And God forbid, if during the “quiet hunt” someone collected one mushroom more than him, the competition would start all over again. And even the young could not keep up with him in sports. Until old age, Pavlov preferred walking “jogging” and cycling to a personal car, on a horizontal bar and in his favorite game - towns - he knew no equal.

When it seemed to everyone that the scientist had already reached the very top, he suddenly made a sharp turn from the study of digestion to the psyche. He was exhorted: is it not too late to take on a new problem at fifty-three, but Pavlov was adamant and switched all his employees to the study of the nervous system. He "reached into the dog's soul" because "mental" salivation interfered with the purity of the experiments. The scientist understood that the psyche is not limited to the lower unconditioned reflexes. Stranger in Neurology did a revolutionary (now classic) experiment with a hungry dog ​​that was supposed to respond to the sound of a bell associated with food. If a dog sees food (an unconditioned stimulus) and at the same time hears the ringing of a bell (conditioned stimulus), then with repeated repetition of the “food + bell” combination, a new reflex arc is established in the dog’s cerebral cortex. After that, saliva is released, as soon as the dog hears the bell ring. So Ivan Petrovich discovered conditioned reflexes (the term was introduced by Pavlov himself). Unconditioned reflexes are the same in all animals of the species, while conditioned reflexes are different.

Such a system of signals, which is formed in the cerebral cortex of the cerebral hemispheres - the first signal system - exists in both animals and humans. But man has another signaling system, more complex and more perfect. It developed in him in the course of a thousand-year historical development, and it is precisely with it that the fundamental differences between the higher nervous activity of man and any animal are connected. Pavlov called it the second signal system. It arose among people in connection with social work and is associated with speech.

For the purity of the experiments on the development of conditioned reflexes in 1913, thanks to the subsidy of the Moscow philanthropist K. Ledentsov, a special building was built with two towers, called "towers of silence". They were originally equipped with three experimental chambers, and in 1917 five more were put into operation. With the help of the developed method for studying conditioned reflexes, Pavlov established that the basis of mental activity is the physiological processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. His studies of the physiology of higher nervous activity (the 1st and 2nd signal systems, types of the nervous system, localization of functions, systemic work of the cerebral hemispheres, etc.) had a great influence on the development of physiology, medicine, psychology and pedagogy.

Only in 1923, Pavlov decided to publish a work, which he called "Twenty years of experience in the objective study of the higher nervous activity (behavior) of animals." The Pavlovian doctrine of higher nervous activity is not just a brilliant page inscribed in the history of science, it is an entire era.

Pavlov accepted the February Revolution with enthusiasm, believing that "the elective principle should underlie both the entire state system and individual institutions." He reacted sharply negatively to the October Revolution, antagonizing towards the new authorities, he even put on royal orders, which he never wore under the old regime, as well as a uniform, and in his office hung an oil-painted portrait of Prince Oldenburg in a military coat with a general - adjutant aiguillette and imperial crown on top.

In 1922, due to a desperate financial situation that called into question further research, Pavlov turned to Lenin with a request to move his laboratory abroad. But he refused, citing the fact that Soviet Russia needs scientists like Pavlov. A special decree was issued, which noted "the exceptional scientific merits of Academician I.P. Pavlov, which are of great importance for the working people of the whole world"; a special commission headed by M. Gorky was instructed to “create the most favorable conditions in the shortest possible time to ensure the scientific work of Academician Pavlov and his colleagues”; the relevant state organizations were asked to "print the scientific work prepared by Academician Pavlov in a luxurious edition" and "provide Pavlov and his wife with a special ration." Ivan Petrovich refused the last point: "I will not accept all these privileges until they are granted to all laboratory workers."

In 1923, Pavlov visited the United States and, upon his return, spoke openly about the perniciousness of communism: "I would not sacrifice even a frog's leg for the social experiment that the communists are conducting in the country." When, in 1924, those who had “non-proletarian origins” began to be fired from the Military Medical Academy in Leningrad, Pavlov refused his place of honor at the Academy, declaring: “I am also the son of a priest, and if you expel others, then I I'll leave!" In 1927, he was the only one who voted against the appointment of party functionaries to the Academy. The professor wrote a letter to I. V. Stalin, in which there were such lines: “In the light of what you are doing to the Russian intelligentsia, demoralizing it and depriving it of all rights, I am ashamed to call myself Russian.”

And yet Pavlov did not leave his homeland, refusing the flattering offers of the Swedish and London Royal Societies. In the last years of his life, he became more loyal to the authorities and even declared that clear changes for the better were taking place in the country. This turning point occurred, apparently, as a result of an increase in state appropriations for science. The construction of the "tower of silence" was completed at the Institute of Experimental Medicine. By the 75th anniversary of the scientist, the physiological laboratory of the Academy of Sciences was reorganized into the Physiological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (now named after Pavlov), and by his 80th birthday, a special scientific institute-town began to operate in Koltushi (near Leningrad) (the only scientific institution in the world of such genus), nicknamed the "capital of conditioned reflexes." Pavlov's long-standing dream of an organic connection between theory and practice was also realized: clinics for nervous and mental diseases were formed at the institutes. All scientific institutions headed by him were equipped with the latest equipment. The number of permanent scientific and scientific and technical employees has increased tenfold. In addition to the usual, large budget funds, the scientist was given significant amounts every month to spend at his own discretion. The regular publication of scientific works of Pavlov's laboratory began.

G. Wells in 1934 noted that "Pavlov's reputation contributes to the prestige of the Soviet Union." Elected a member of numerous scientific societies, academies, universities, Ivan Petrovich in 1936 was recognized by the World Congress of Physiologists as a foreman of physiologists of the whole world (princeps physiologorum mundi).

The brilliant scientist was in his 87th year when he himself diagnosed himself with swelling of the cerebral cortex (this was confirmed at autopsy). But Ivan Pavlovich died on February 27, 1936 from pneumonia. The scientist's death came as a complete surprise to everyone. Despite his advanced age, he was physically very strong, burned with seething energy, worked tirelessly, and enthusiastically made plans for further work. On the eve of Pavlov visited England, where he led the organization and conduct of the XV International Congress of Physiologists, visited his native Ryazan. However, the years made themselves felt, Ivan Petrovich was no longer the same as before: he looked unhealthy, quickly got tired and did not feel well. A heavy blow for Pavlov was the illness and quick death of his youngest son Vsevolod. But Ivan Petrovich stubbornly refused treatment, carefully recording all the symptoms of the disease. After another cold that developed into pneumonia, the best medical forces of the country could not save the life of the great scientist.

Pavlov told his colleagues that he would live for at least a hundred years, and only in the last years of his life would he leave laboratories to write memoirs about what he had seen on his long life path. Perhaps this is the only thing that he did not succeed ...

The famous American physiologist W. Kennon wrote: “In the teachings of Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, I was always struck by two phenomena. The extraordinary primitivism of the experiment and the possibility, precisely with the help of this primitivism, to see through the whole abyss of the human psyche and establish the basic principles of its work. On the one hand, such and such a number of drops of saliva for such and such a number of minutes, and on the other, the cornerstones of the physiology of higher nervous activity. Pavlov's analogue in physical chemistry is Faraday, who substantiated electrodynamics with the help of a piece of iron, a wire and a magnet. Both, of course, are geniuses without any qualifications, having penetrated the nature of things with the help of childishly naive ways. This is their greatness and immortality. The banners of physiology of all countries bowed at his feet. On all continents of the globe, the name of Pavlov is known, even children know, they know his portrait - a man with a white beard, a cunning and smartest Russian peasant. From the book Bogdanov Ivan Petrovich author Minchenkov Yakov Danilovich

KUZENOV Ivan Petrovich Ivan Petrovich Kuzenov was born in 1922. Russian. Since 1929 he lived in Magnitogorsk. He graduated from high school number 47 and at the same time the flying club. Since 1940, in the Soviet Army, he graduated from an aviation school. Since May 1942, he has been participating in battles with the Nazi invaders on

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