Theodor swedberg. Theoretical foundations of physics

"Both in the main business of my life - colloidal chemistry, and in botany - my hobby, I have always chosen the wide expanses of the tundra."

Theodore Swedberg.

The Swedish chemist Theodor Svedberg was born August 30, 1884. in the estate of Flerang, near the town of Gavle. He was the only child of Elias Svedberg, engineer and manager of the local iron foundry, and Augusta (Alstermark) Svedberg. The boy's father often took long country walks with him, cultivating his interest in nature. He also allowed the young Svedberg to experiment in the small laboratory of the iron foundry.

While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became especially interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Despite the fact that he was most interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist, because he believed that this would allow him to "look" deeper into biological processes. AT January 1904 Theodor entered Uppsala University and from that time connected with him almost all his life. He studied with great perseverance and showed extraordinary ability in the natural sciences. Here Svedberg got acquainted with the newly published "Theoretical Chemistry" by V. Nernst, as well as new works. "Nature of colloids" and G. Bredig "Inorganic enzymes". The science of colloids fascinated him and gave him confidence that the study of colloidal systems would help explain the processes in living organisms. Comparative analysis of crystalloids and colloids also seemed important to him, since the existence of molecules was still disputed by some scientists, led by W. Ostwald. AT 1905 Svedberg received a bachelor's degree and became an assistant at the Uppsala Institute of Chemistry, two years later - a master's degree and began lecturing in chemistry at the university, and in December 1907. he received his Ph.D. Already in his first scientific work in 1905 Svedberg, using an induction coil to spray metals in an electric spark during an oscillatory discharge in liquids, obtained more than 30 organosols of various metals and thereby laid the foundations for deep physicochemical studies of sols, which constituted his main interest in the next 15 years. Photographing traces of colloidal particles in a Zsigmondy ultramicroscope, Svedberg conducted ( 1906 ) on colloidal objects direct experimental verification of the theory of fluctuations and . These results are described in a doctoral dissertation. "The doctrine of colloidal solutions" ( 1907 ), were of great theoretical importance for proving the reality of the existence of molecules and for substantiating modern molecular kinetic concepts. Svedberg carried out a thorough determination of the diffusion coefficients in colloidal solutions of gold, sulfur, etc. In a review of Svedberg's dissertation, Ostwald pleaded defeated: "First proof of kinetic theory obtained".

AT 1912 Svedberg became the first teacher of physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He gained fame through research on the physical properties of colloidal systems.

The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring the rate of their precipitation, as shown (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926 ), and yet most colloidal particles are deposited slowly, and the same technology seemed impractical. To determine the size of particles in colloidal solutions S. used designed by Richard Zsigmondy. He managed to prove that colloidal solutions obey the classical physical and chemical laws for dilute solutions. However, in most cases, this method did not make it possible to establish the sizes of the smallest particles and the particle size distribution.

There was a need to speed up the process, and thus to develop a more perfect method, which led to the creation of an ultracentrifuge. Svedberg believed that the sedimentation of colloidal particles would be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During his time at the University of Wisconsin 1923, where he was a visiting professor for 8 months, Svedberg set about creating an optical centrifuge in which the deposition of particles would be recorded by photographing. Since the particles moved not only by settling, but also by the action of conventional currents, Svedberg could not determine the size of the particles using this method. He knew that the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could help eliminate temperature differences, and hence convection currents. Having designed a wedge-shaped cell and placed a rotating cell in a hydrogen atmosphere, Svedberg 1924, having already returned to Sweden, together with his colleague Herman Rinde, he achieved deposition without convection.

In December 1924 published their first article on the ultracentrifuge, in which the authors wrote: "The centrifuge we have designed allows us to determine particles that are not visible in an ultramicroscope with great accuracy."

A year later, Svedberg discovered that biological macromolecules (proteins) could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He proved that all molecules of a given protein are monodisperse (i.e., have the same size), in contrast to the particles of metal colloidal systems, which are polydisperse, since their sizes are completely different. Moreover, the rate of protein deposition can also be used to infer the size of the molecule. This conclusion was the first indication that protein molecules have a well-defined mass and shape. As a result of Swedberg's discoveries, the centrifuge became the main instrument of biochemical research. Now the precipitation rate is measured in units named after Svedberg. AT 1926 Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his work in the field of disperse systems". In his opening speech on behalf of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, H. G. Söderbaum said: "The movement of particles suspended in a liquid ... clearly indicates the real existence of molecules, and consequently of atoms - a fact all the more significant because until recently, an influential school of scientists declared these material particles a product of the imagination."

In his Nobel Lecture, which he gave the following year, Svedberg, reviewing the technical and theoretical problems associated with his work, described the great potential importance that he believed the ultracentrifuge would have for progress in many fields, including medicine, physics , chemistry and industry.

In a new physical chemistry laboratory specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government, he spent another 15 years perfecting the design of his centrifuge. AT January 1926 the scientist tested a new model of ultracentrifuge with oil rotors, in which he achieved 40,100 revolutions per minute. And 5 years later he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 g acted on the settling system.

Thanks to the discoveries of Svedberg, the ultracentrifuge became the main tool for biochemical analytical research for decades, and the agility of precipitation of biopolymers in the sediment is measured in units called " swedberg" [

1 swedberg = 10 −13 sec]

Throughout his life, Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint work with Daniel Strömholm proved that some radioactive elements, previously considered different, are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the periodic table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by Frederick Soddy. In the end 20s. Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. After opening in 1932. James Chadwick of the neutron, a particle with no electrical charge, Swedberg designed a small neutron generator to study the effects of neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.

During World War II, he developed industrial methods for producing synthetic rubbers in Sweden.

Svedberg's research, along with the works of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948 ) by electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger's definition (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980 ) their amino acid sequences and for the crystallographic work of Kendrew and Perutz (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962 ). It has been proven that all proteins have molecules that are round, monodisperse and have a large molecular weight. Expanding the field of study with the help of an ultracentrifuge to other biological macromolecules, Svedberg discovered that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.

Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint service with Daniel Strömholm showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same position in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921 ). In the end 1920s Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. After opening in 1932 James Chadwick of the neutron, Swedberg designed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.

In 1949, Svedberg retired, and yet, by a special decree, he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, which had been created at Uppsala University shortly before, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.Considering science to be international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.Working at the intersection of sciences, Svedberg made a significant contribution to the unification of physics, chemistry and biology.

Svedberg has published 228 articles and 12 books on colloid chemistry and macromolecular substances, nuclear chemistry and radiobiology. The latest publication (on proton radiotherapy) was published in 1965 when he was 81 years old.. He constantly maintained contacts with foreign scientists, visited laboratories in Germany many times ( 1913 ), Austria ( 1916 ), England, France, Denmark, USA and Canada ( 1920-1923 ).

Svedberg has received many awards and medals.: including the Berzelius medal of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences ( 1944 ), Franklin Medal of the Franklin Institute ( 1949 ) and the Adolf Gustav Medal of Uppsala University ( 1964 ); was an honorary member of 30 scientific societies of the world, a member of the Swedish (from the age of 28) and other academies of the world, a member of the Nobel Committee, and in 1966 he was elected a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences. According to A. Tiselius, "Svedberg was the head of all Swedish chemistry for 50 years." He brought up a whole galaxy of students.

(Svedberg, Theodor) (18841971) (Sweden). Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1926.

Born August 30, 1884 in the estate of Flerang, near Gävle (Sweden), the only child of Elias Svedberg, manager of the iron foundry, and Augusta Alstermark. The father often took long country walks with the boy and allowed him to experiment in the factory laboratory. While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was more interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist in order to "look" deeper into biological processes.

In January 1904 he entered Uppsala University, and in September 1905 received a bachelor's degree. In the same year, his first article was published. Svedberg continued to study at Uppsala University, and in 1907 he was awarded his doctorate for a thesis on colloidal systems, in which he described a new method of using oscillatory electrical discharges between metal electrodes located in a liquid to obtain colloidal solutions of metals. He experimentally confirmed (1907) the theory of Brownian motion by Einstein and Smoluchowski, proved the existence of molecules (1907) and contributed to modern ideas about the atomic and molecular structure of matter.

In 1912 Svedberg became the first teacher of physical chemistry at Uppsala University and remained in this position for 36 years. He gained fame through research on the physical properties of colloidal systems.

The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring their sedimentation rate, as shown by Jean Baptiste Perrin (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926), but most colloidal particles precipitate slowly and this method was impractical. There was a need to speed up the process, and, consequently, to develop a more advanced method, which led to the creation of an ultracentrifuge.

Svedberg believed that the settling of colloidal particles could be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin in 1923, he set about building an optical centrifuge in which the settling of particles was recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only settling, but also under the action of convection currents, Svedberg was unable to establish their dimensions. Since the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could eliminate temperature differences, and, consequently, convection currents, he, having designed a wedge-shaped cell and rotating it in a hydrogen atmosphere, together with his colleague G. Rinde, achieved deposition without convection (1924).

A year later, Svedberg discovered that proteins could also be made to precipitate out of solution. He showed that all molecules of this protein are monodisperse, in contrast to the polydisperse particles of colloidal inorganic systems. Moreover, the rate of protein deposition can also be used to infer the size of the molecule.

In 1926, Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize "for his work in the field of disperse systems."

In the new laboratory of physical chemistry, specially built for Svedberg by the Swedish government after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, he spent another 15 years improving the design of the centrifuge. In January 1926, she tested her new model with oil rotors and achieved 40,100 rpm. Five years later, he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute had already reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could make 120,000 revolutions per minute. At this speed, a force of 525,000 F (where F is the force of gravity) acted on the settling system.

The next stage of the study was the analysis of the sedimentation characteristics of 100 proteins (including hemoglobin and hemocyanin) involved in the respiratory processes of many animals. It was proved that the molecules of all these proteins are spherical, monodisperse and have a large molecular weight. Extending his ultracentrifuge research to other biopolymers, Svedberg found that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.

Thanks to the discoveries of Swedberg, the ultracentrifuge became the main instrument of biochemical analytical research for decades, and the rate of precipitation of biopolymers in the sediment is measured in units called "swedberg".

Svedberg's research, along with the work of A. Tiselius (Nobel Prize, 1948) on electrophoresis, became a tool for establishing the uniqueness of protein molecules in size and structure, and this became a prerequisite for Sanger's determination (Nobel Prize 1958 and 1980) of their amino acid sequences and for crystallographic work Kendrew and Perutz (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1962).

Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint work with Daniel Strömholm (18711961) showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same place in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In the late 1920s, Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. Following the discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick (18911974), Svedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and produce radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.

In 1949, Svedberg retired, but by special decree he was allowed to retain the post of director of the Gustav Werner Institute for Nuclear Chemistry, which had been recently created at Uppsala University, where, mainly thanks to his efforts, a synchrocyclotron was installed.

Svedberg made a great contribution to strengthening the connection between academic science and the practical application of scientific achievements. During the Second World War, he achieved the deployment of synthetic rubber production in Sweden.

Considering science to be international, he invited foreign scientists to work at Uppsala University.

He was a man of a lively mind and varied interests. An excellent amateur photographer, he seriously studied the process of photographing. 1920s, using different wavelengths to photograph the Codex Argenteus, (Gothic Bible, 500 AD), he discovered that ultraviolet rays made visible the faint composition in which it was written.

He was interested in botany and was the owner of one of the best botanical collections in Sweden.

Works: Energy degeneration. M. L., 1927; Colloidal formation/ Per. from English. L., 1927; Colloidal Chemistry 2nd ed. / Per. from English. M., 1930; The Ultracentrifuge. Oxford, 1940 (with K.O. Pedersen).

Kirill Zelenin

Zelenin K.N., Nozdrachev A.D., Polyakov E.L. Nobel Prizes in Chemistry for 100 years. St. Petersburg, Humanist, 2003

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A numerical model is constructed and a study is made of the dynamics of a momentumless turbulent wake in a horizontally homogeneous shear flow of a linearly stratified medium. The data obtained demonstrate the transformation of the region of turbulent disturbances and wake-generated internal waves under the influence of a shear flow, as well as the significant generation of turbulence energy by the average motion, which leads to a slowdown in the degeneration of turbulence at long times after the passage of the body.

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Neutrino processes in an external magnetic field in the technique of the density matrix method. instructions

The guidelines describe the technique for calculating electroweak processes in an external magnetic field using the example of neutrino processes that have important astrophysical applications. The calculation technique is based on the representation of the density matrix of a charged particle in an external magnetic field. The work was carried out within the framework of the state assignment to the university (project no. 2.4176.2011), with partial financial support from the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project no. 11-02-00394-a).

In giant SGR flares in γ-quanta, a huge energy ∆<...>It follows from the expression for the energy (3.14) that the energy spectrum of a fermion has a twofold degeneracy in quantum<...>number s for n ≥ 1 and infinitely degenerate with respect to p2 if it is continuous.<...>Note that taking into account the interaction of the anomalous magnetic moment with the magnetic field removes the degeneracy<...>For the density matrix of a nonrelativistic proton, we use expression (4.31) taking into account the absence of degeneracy

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No. 1 [Thermophysics and Aeromechanics, 2016]

Journal Founders: Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences S.S. Kutateladze SB RAS Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. S.A. Khristianovich SB RAS The main scientific topics of the journal are: - hydrogasdynamics - heat and mass transfer - turbulence - means and methods of aero- and thermophysical experiment - physics of low-temperature plasma - physical and technical problems of energy

turbulence by an average motion, leading to a slowdown in the degeneration of turbulence at large<...>As Fs (and, accordingly, the Richardson number) increases, the region of degeneracy of the total turbulence energy<...>These data demonstrate a faster degeneration of turbulence energy in a stably stratified<...>medium (in the shearless case, the laws of degeneracy Et ~ x −1 for g = 0 and Et ~ x −1.23 ⎯ for DF<...>degeneracy of turbulence at long wake “lifetimes” in a transverse shear flow.

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No. 5 [Questions of Literature, 2015]

Journal of Criticism and Literary Studies. For writers, philologists, Slavists, teachers, university students, as well as for all those interested in literature.

Energy degeneration / Translated, ed. prof. N. P. Kasterina. M.<...>In The Degeneration of Energy, Svedberg testifies: By the end of the 19th century, the discovery of radioactivity came<...>Energy degeneration. P. 82. 31 Ibid. pp. 82-90. 32 Swedberg T.<...>In Svedberg's book "Degeneration of Energy", completely devoted to the problem of the heat death of the Universe and on<...>Energy degeneration. S. 11.

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Arrays of superconducting transmon qubits coupled to a superconducting coplanar λ/2 resonator have been studied by microwave spectroscopy. The emergence of a collective mode of a cluster of N > 5 qubits, which has a coupling strength with the electromagnetic field in the resonator √N times greater than that of a single qubit, has been found. The occurrence of collective multiphoton transitions that excite high levels of a cluster of qubits is also shown, and the interaction of an individual qubit with such a cluster is studied.

use in a metamaterial made it possible to excite collective multiphoton transitions to higher energy levels<...>The Josephson energy of one transmon was EJ = 19.86 GHz h, the charge energy EC = 0.29 GHz<...> <...>In such magnetic fields, a periodic energy exchange occurs between the collective mode of qubits and

The article examines the specifics of understanding the Faustian theme in E. Zamyatin's novel "We". The conflict of Apollonian and Dionysian is considered as a mode of realization of the Faustian theme. The features of its development are analyzed at three levels - psychological, spatial and philosophical. At the psychological level, the problem of self-identification of the Faustian consciousness, embodied in the images of the main characters, is revealed. The bifurcation of the spiritual state of the characters is emphasized in an attempt to identify themselves both with the supporters of the One State (the Apollonian principle) and with the representatives of the "wild" world (the Dionysian principle). It is stated that in the spiritual doubts of D-503, the features of the “Russian Faust” are visible. The dualism of the image of I-330 is emphasized, which simultaneously inherits the features of the images of Faust and Mephistopheles. At the spatial level of the conflict, the clash of two worlds is considered - the One State and the World behind the Green Wall as the eternal opposition of civilization and nature. This conflict is a conflict between the human and Faustian principles. In understanding the Apollonian / Dionysian conflict, one can see Zamyatin's thought about the limitations of both principles in separate manifestations, and about their incompatibility in the artistic space of the novel: the revolution is defeated. The philosophical level of realization of the Apollonian / Dionysian conflict is comprehended by Zamyatin from the standpoint of the theory of entropy. In Zamyatin's philosophy, entropy becomes synonymous with stagnation and, as a result, degradation and death, the salvation from which can only be the eternal activity of energy. In this regard, the Apollonian / Dionysian collision in the novel "We" is projected onto the opposition of the entropic and energetic principles. Hence the idea of an eternal, endless revolution as an energy that explodes entropy, leading the Universe out of a state of rest.

and, as a result, degradation and death, salvation from which can only be the eternal activity of energy<...>Hence the idea of an eternal, endless revolution as an energy that explodes entropy, leading the Universe out of the state<...>not social, but immeasurably more - cosmic, universal, the same as the law of conservation of energy<...>; degeneration of energy (entropy)”, while arguing that “dogmatization in science, religion, social<...>Hence the idea of the eternal, endless revolution, which is meaningful in the novel, as an energy that explodes entropy,

The article is devoted to Zamyatin about his prose, about his literary opinions and theories.

<...>," degeneration of energy (entropy).

We consider processes in compact stars that arise during the possible formation of a pseudoscalar condensate in finite volumes. The paper does not make specific assumptions about the nature of the condensate. Assuming that photon propagation in regions with varying pseudoscalar density can be described in terms of Maxwell–Chern–Simons electrodynamics, the reflection/transmission coefficients for regions with different densities are found. A study of the fermion spectrum in the presence of an axial field is carried out, taking into account the gradient of the pseudoscalar condensate, and the effect of modified photon and fermion spectra on the cooling process of compact stars is also studied.

<...> <...>In the nonrelativistic limit, the two Fermi levels must be separated by an energy of 2b.<...>Photons with energies on the order of several keV interact weakly with electrons due to their degeneracy,<...>Such a process will be accompanied by the emission of photons with a certain energy.

The possibility of the occurrence of collective spin excitations in a two-dimensional paramagnetic crystal with a dipole-dipole interaction of particles in the absence of exchange effects, located in a uniform constant magnetic field, is studied. In the saturation state, the magnetic moments are oriented along the field. The properties of a paramagnet in the limit of low temperatures are described on the basis of the Holstein–Primakov representation in terms of spin waves. Dispersion relations for spin waves in a paramagnetic system on square and hexagonal lattices are analyzed. It is shown that the length of spin waves that can appear in the system and the width of their energy spectrum are determined by the orientation of the applied field. In an orthogonal field, long-wavelength excitations are realized, while in a parallel magnetic field, excitations with finite wavelengths of the order of the lattice constant are energetically favorable. A direct numerical simulation of the dynamics of a group of interacting magnetic moments in an external field of various orientations has been carried out. The time dependences and Fourier spectra of the transverse component of the total spin of the system and the dipole part of the energy are obtained. The simulation results are consistent with calculations within the framework of the spin-wave approach

<...>Energy of spin waves 3.1.<...> <...> <...>

EXPANSION DYNAMICS OF A TWO-COMPONENT QUASI-ONE-DIMENSIONAL BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE: PHASE DIAGRAM, SELF-SIMULAR SOLUTIONS AND DISPERSIVE SHOCK WAVES [Electronic resource] / Ivanov, Kamchatnov // Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics.- 2017 .- No. 4 .- P. 21-39 .- Mode access: https://website/efd/592348

We study the expansion dynamics of a Bose-Einstein condensate, which consists of two components and is initially contained in a quasi-one-dimensional trap. A classification of the possible initial states of a two-component condensate is carried out, taking into account the inhomogeneity of the distributions of the components, and the corresponding phase diagram is constructed on the plane of the nonlinear interaction constants. Differential equations are obtained that describe the evolution of the condensate under the assumption that the density and velocity of the condensate depend quadratically and linearly on the spatial coordinate, respectively, which reproduces the initial equilibrium distribution of the condensate in the trap in the Thomas-Fermi approximation. Self-similar solutions of these differential equations are obtained for a number of important particular cases, and asymptotic formulas are written that describe the motion of the condensate at large times, when the density of the condensate becomes so small that the interaction between atoms can be neglected. The problem of the dynamics of immiscible components with the formation of dispersive shock waves is considered. Comparison of numerical solutions of the Gross-Pitaevskii equations with approximate analytical solutions is carried out and situations are numerically studied when the analytical method used does not allow exact solutions.

kind of atoms (see) or one kind of atoms in two different quantum states, such that the energy difference<...>In the case of immiscible components, a comparison of the energies for symmetric configurations shows (see Fig.<...>The point is that on this curve, not only the energies of the symmetric distributions 2e and 2f, but also the energy of the asymmetric<...> <...>condensate compressed in the trap will be converted into the kinetic energy of their flow.

Quantum mechanics [textbook]

Rostov

This textbook is devoted to the fundamental problems of quantum physics, new quantum effects and their applications, widely uses the mathematical apparatus and theoretical methods that are not studied at the proper level in standard quantum theory courses and are not sufficiently described in standard textbooks. The main attention is paid not to the consideration of specific quantum phenomena, which is easy to find in any textbook on quantum mechanics, but to a detailed description of the physical foundations of quantum mechanics, its mathematical apparatus, necessary for studying modern literature, methods of using this apparatus to describe the main non-relativistic micro-objects and axiomatics. , which establishes a connection between the mathematical apparatus and the characteristics of micro-objects.

degenerate .<...>The reason for the degeneracy with respect to l is non-trivial: this degeneracy is due to the hidden symmetry of the Hamilton operator<...> <...> <...>In the case of negative energies, there is no degeneracy only if the eigenwave function

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Selected chapters of quantum chemistry: proofs of theorems and derivation of formulas [textbook], Simple Theorems, Proofs, and Derivations in Quantum Chemistry

Moscow: Laboratory of Knowledge

The textbook, written by a specialist from Hungary, discusses the main results and precise statements of quantum chemistry with conclusions and proofs. Examples of the application of quantum-chemical statements in the analysis of specific systems are given.

<...>(In the case of degenerate values ai = bj , they can be chosen in the same way.)<...>Degenerate Rayleigh-Schrödinger Perturbation Theory. . . . . . . 115 4.<...>Usually (but not necessarily) the energy degeneracy is removed in the first order (i.e., the eigenvalues<...>Degenerate Rayleigh-Schrödinger Perturbation Theory. . . . . . . 115 4.

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Theoretical foundations of physics

Moscow: Institute for Computer Research

In this book, the structure of the theoretical foundations of physics is presented in a compact form, indicating the limits of applicability, flaws, and other features of the initial positions and equations. The book can serve as a reference for researchers and a short textbook for students. Mathematical rigor is combined with a detailed commentary presented in an accessible form, so the book can be useful for a wider range of readers who want to see the physical picture of the world from a bird's eye view and understand the possibilities of certain theoretical directions.

With. zn. energy (the degeneracy in the magnetic number m and in the sign of the spin projection onto the z axis remains). 5.<...>As we see from (A2.29), the energy degeneracy with respect to l is lifted.<...>degeneracy (number of states with energy kE).<...>So, the multiplicity of degeneracy is considered to be a function of the occupation numbers.<...>Hence it follows that the multiplicity of energy degeneracy kE , determined by the numbers 1 2,n n …, is equal to 1 2 1 2

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No. 2 [Bulletin of the Perm University. Series "Physics", 2016]

The journal publishes new experimental and theoretical results of research in the field of condensed matter physics, fluid mechanics, radio spectroscopy and automation of a physical experiment, reflecting the scientific trends that have developed at the Faculty of Physics of the Perm State National Research University.

with a high degeneracy multiplicity. 3.<...>Energy of spin waves 3.1.<...>White indicates energy maxima and black indicates energy minimums.<...>; d – Fourier spectrum of dipole energy. 5.<...>The spin-wave approach also gives a description of the time dependence of the dipole energy.

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No. 2 [Theoretical and mathematical physics, 2017]

Founded in 1969. Original papers on fundamental problems of theoretical and mathematical physics are published on the following topics: mathematical problems of quantum mechanics; quantum field theory and mathematical aspects of the theory of elementary particles; quantum scattering theory, inverse problem method; mathematical problems of statistical physics; gravity, gauge fields, string and membrane theory; supersymmetry; completely integrable and related classical and quantum models; algebraic, geometric and other mathematical methods of modern theoretical physics. The journal is peer-reviewed and is included in the VAK List.

In conclusion, we discuss assumptions regarding the applicability of the phenomena we describe in degenerate<...>For degenerate electrons, estimates of the Fermi energy in white dwarfs give a value of 0.10 MeV, while for a typical<...>arising from their large mean free path, which in turn is a consequence of the properties of the degenerate<...>White dwarfs have a degenerate relativistic electron gas in their composition, and the mechanism of their cooling<...>Photons with energies on the order of several keV interact weakly with electrons due to their degeneracy,

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No. 1 [Letters to the Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, 2017]

The eigenfunctions are expressed in terms of a linear combination of the Hermite function and the degenerate hypergeometric<...>In these regions, the energies of the states |+, n〉 and |−, n+1〉 degenerate, where n is the number of photons in the resonator<...>In real QDs, this degeneracy is removed due to the deviation of the QD from the ideal shape, as well as the influence of the piezopotential<...>data, solid lines are linear and quadratic approximations As noted earlier, ideal QDs with degenerate<...>On fig. 3 shows the dependence of the transmittance on the frequency at the point of degeneracy in magnetic

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Quantum scattering theory [textbook]

Rostov

The scientific literature devoted to the fundamental problems of quantum physics, new quantum effects and their applications makes extensive use of the mathematical apparatus and theoretical methods that are not studied at the proper level in standard quantum theory courses and are insufficiently described in standard textbooks. This tutorial aims to fill this gap. The main attention is paid not to the consideration of specific quantum phenomena, which is easy to find in any textbook on quantum mechanics, but to a detailed description of the physical foundations of quantum mechanics, its mathematical apparatus, necessary for studying modern literature, methods of using this apparatus to describe the main non-relativistic micro-objects and axiomatics. , which establishes a connection between the mathematical apparatus and the characteristics of micro-objects.

It is easy to understand the reason for this degeneration.<...>This implies the assertion that the energy is degenerate, regardless of whether it is positive or negative.<...>In the case of negative energies, there is no degeneracy only if the eigenwave function<...>Otherwise, degeneracy is bound to exist.<...>different ways, regardless of whether the degeneration is infinitely multiple or finitely multiple.

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No. 3 [Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, 2018]

The interference effect is more important at moderate energies and decreases as the energy increases.<...>with the energy of the normal phase.<...>Gryaznov ZhETF, volume 153, no. 3, 2018 degenerate .<...>plasma In a non-degenerate plasma 〈εe〉 = (3/2)T , and in a highly degenerate one 〈εe〉 = (3/5)εF , where εF is the energy<...>or the Fermi energy.

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No. 2 [Thermophysics of high temperatures, 2018]

Sukhomlinov 168 On temperature effects in the correlation functions of a degenerate electron plasma V.<...>The EPH in liquid metals is considered to be completely degenerate due to the condition � εT ,F (1) where T is the temperature<...>Trigger1 ON THE TEMPERATURE EFFECTS IN THE CORRELATION FUNCTIONS OF A DEGENERATE ELECTRON PLASMA UDC 533.9…12<...>On the theory of degenerate electron fluid.<...>On the transverse permittivity of a degenerate electron plasma // TVT. 2017. V. 55. No. 4.

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No. 4 [Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics, 2017]

Founded in 1873. Articles are published that make a significant contribution to one of the areas of physics and are of interest to a wide physical audience. The journal is peer-reviewed, included in the List of Higher Attestation Commission for the publication of works of applicants for scientific degrees.

Such a degeneration of energies , which is illustrated in Fig. 3 leads to the fact that even a small perturbation<...>energy of the chain of N oscillators and obtain the estimate of the electronic part of the total energy : Ee = 〈Etot(T)〉 −<...>Dependences of the charge energy Ee on the energy of the classical chain x = E∗NT .<...>Substituting them into the expression for the total energy (4), taking into account vn = 0, we obtain that the energies are the same: Etot<...>In a certain sense, this is also true for a magnetic field in the case of degeneracy of the initial state, since

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Expansion of Russian participation in international projects is a priority task of state administration. The article shows the implementation of a program-targeted approach to the implementation of oil and gas projects under the terms of a production sharing agreement (PSA). Proper program management, as a way to implement a set of projects, leads to the achievement of the strategic goal of the organization

The agreement was signed between Sakhalin Energy and the Russian Federation (represented by the Government of the Russian Federation and<...> <...>Sakhalin Energy's shareholders are:  Gazprom Sakhalin Holdings B.V.<...> <...>Formation of a joint customer service "Sakhalin Energy" and LLC "Gazprom Transgaz Tomsk".

No. 1 [Ural Philological Bulletin. Series: Russian Literature of the 20th-21st Centuries: Directions and Currents, 2016]

Since 2012, the collection of scientific articles "Russian literature of the XX-XXI centuries: directions and trends" has been part of the periodical electronic publication "Ural Philological Bulletin" as one of the series. The collection includes articles by literary critics from different cities of Russia and abroad. The collection is intended for philologists, students, teachers of literature

Serenade" Braga ... During this period, Chekhov was interested in psychiatry, he was also familiar with Max Nordau's book on degeneration<...>In synergetics, there is the concept of "the moment of accumulation of energy (transformation)".<...>It is the World Soul (and in the Russian reading also Sophia) that represents the energy that inspires<...>In this conglomerate of simultaneous preferences, the energy needed to realize the changing<...>; degeneration of energy (entropy)”, while arguing that “dogmatization in science, religion, social

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No. 32 [Fringes, 1956]

JOURNAL OF LITERATURE, ART, SCIENCE AND PUBLIC THOUGHT. Among the authors of "Faces" in different years were such writers and poets as A. Akhmatova, L. Borodin, I. Bunin, Z. Gippius, Yu. Dombrovsky, B. Zaitsev, N. Lossky, A. Kuprin, V. Soloukhin , M. Tsvetaeva, O. P. Ilyinsky.

social, but immeasurably more - cosmic, universal law - the same as the law of conservation of energy<...>," degeneration of energy (entropy).<...>Only religious love for the living is capable of evoking such an energy of self-giving.<...>Soviet government "x> pan-European cooperation in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy

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Pharmacological agents in sports [proc. allowance]

Irkutsk branch of RGUFKSMiT

The textbook was developed for the discipline "Pharmacological agents in sports" in the direction of training 49.03.02 - "Physical culture for persons with disabilities in the state of health (adaptive physical culture)". It can be recommended for use in other academic disciplines ("Nutrition in sports", "Valeology", "Biochemical foundations of sports training") and in the direction of training 49.03.01 - "Physical culture".

The universal source of energy in the cell is the free energy of the macroenergetic phosphate bond<...>"Formulas for increasing muscle energy" and drink "L-carnitine +".<...>first "KreAmin", and then "Formula for increasing muscle energy".<...>"Formulas for increasing muscle energy".<...>"Formula to Increase Muscle Energy". 5. "Inosine-500".

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General and inorganic chemistry. In 2 vols. T. 1. Laws and concepts of studies. allowance

Moscow: Laboratory of Knowledge

In an educational publication written by teachers of the M.V. Lomonosov Moscow Technological University and the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, the course of general and inorganic chemistry is outlined in accordance with the curriculum for chemical and technological specialties. The textbook is published in two volumes. Volume 1 outlines the laws and concepts - the mandatory content of chemistry education. Along with general concepts of chemistry, informative historical digressions, teaching examples on how to use the Periodic system, the basics of thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, chemistry of solutions, the basic structure of matter and the coordination chemistry of complex compounds are outlined. Some sections end with tasks, for which detailed solutions and answers are given at the end of the textbook. The reference material necessary for solving many problems is available on the publisher's website.

The structure of the atom In the absence of an external magnetic field, all states of the atomic nucleus are degenerate (i.e., they have<...>In an external magnetic field, the degeneracy is lifted and the degenerate state splits; at<...>sublevels, i.e. partial lifting of energy degeneracy).<...>complex (symmetry reduction), degeneracy is removed and, as a result, the total energy of the system is reduced<...>According to the Jahn-Teller theorem, in this case it is possible to lift the degeneracy in the case of tetragonal distortion

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One of the most important trends of the past 2013 was, in my opinion, the understanding that energy hunger is no longer a threat to humanity. This conclusion, formulated in a number of my recent works as a thesis - "a global surplus of energy resources is approaching mankind", was confirmed in numerous studies by Russian and foreign experts, the results of which were reported at various international energy congresses, conferences, symposiums and forums held in the second half of the 2013

and staff of the European Commission noted that decisions on the priority development of renewable energy sources<...>and subsidizing "green energy" were taken in completely different conditions, in the face of the threat of a shortage<...>energy that has dominated humanity for more than half a century since the so-called Club of Rome.<...>It is the structure of the future economy that will determine adequate sources of energy for itself.

The article discusses the need to attract special attention of legislators to the issues of legal regulation of liability for violations of environmental safety in the nuclear industry

Legal institution regulating the use of nuclear energy in the following areas: legal regime for mining<...>nuclear energy and the safety of activities in the field of the use of atomic energy (Article 6).<...>, at facilities that use nuclear energy to generate electricity, i.e.<...>nuclear power plants), as well as standards aimed at protection against threats associated with the use of nuclear energy, including<...>Federal Law No. 170-FZ of November 21, 1995 (as amended on July 2, 2013) "On the Use of Atomic Energy" (21

No. 1 [Bulletin of the Perm University. Series Mathematics. "Mechanics. Informatics", 2018]

The publication includes original research, review articles, scientific notes relating to all areas indicated in the title of the journal, and above all, their current problems and open questions. The journal is of interest to scientists working in these areas, as it provides an opportunity to exchange experience, as well as to postgraduate students and students of physics and mathematics specialties of universities. The founder of the journal is the Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Perm State National Research University" (formerly the State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Perm State University"), responsible for the publication is the Faculty of Mechanics and Mathematics.

control of a dynamic system linearized in the vicinity of the base motion, according to the criteria "minimum energy<...>Bernoulli equation or integral", expresses the law of conservation of living forces (kinetic and potential energy<...>In the pamphlet "On the Conservation of Force" (1847), Helmholtz gives a rationale for the law of conservation of energy, earlier<...>Problem 2 ("minimum energy").<...>Controls  u  Functionals  I u    Minimum energy       0 1 2 , T en t I u u u d 

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On the methodological foundations of philological text analysis: the principle of complementarity

On the complementarity principle in philological text analysis

BarelyCopyright Central Design Bureau BIBCOM OJSC & Kniga-Service Agency LLC is thoroughly, deeply and thoroughly permeated with energies<...>some dia-, re-, times-, i.e. a methodological environment that merges its personal energies with the object<...>suggesting the complementarity and interpenetration of the subject and the object, "merging with the object of personal energies<...>stereotypes of everyday thinking and practical speech, the poet reveals the internal dynamics, potential energy<...>lyrical text stems from the very creative essence of the word, which is "the arena of the meeting of energy

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No. 5 [Problems of economics and management of the oil and gas complex, 2015]

with which Gazprom acquired 50% plus 1 share of Sakhalin Energy.<...>Organization of work with Sakhalin Energy Step 3.<...>wind energy. Firewood. Ebb and flow energy. Agricultural waste, etc.<...>Energy supply options Fig. 3.<...>on the wholesale market of electric energy and power".

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An analysis of some scientific works (for example: Abramova A.N., Logofeta D.D.) substantiates the need to introduce into the civil legislation the provisions for the supply of oil and oil products as a type of sale. Therefore, the purpose of the article is to clarify the provisions in civil law regarding the contract for the supply of petroleum products

Here, the essential conditions are the conditions on the subject of the contract (Article 539 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), the amount of energy<...>(Article 541 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), the mode of consumption of the supplied energy, the obligations of the parties for proper technical<...>The term "connected network" itself was introduced by the legislator for the contract for the supply of electricity<...>, full and (or) partial restriction of the mode of consumption of electrical energy "(together with the" Basic<...>restrictions on the mode of consumption of electrical energy ") // Consultant Plus // http://www.consultant.ru

"Methodological methods of motor rehabilitation of the disabled (ICP) by means of the Artificial Control Environment"".""" Ph.D. dis. … cand. ped. Sciences

The purpose of the work is the development of methodological techniques, modes of motor rehabilitation of disabled people in the process of mastering rational motor actions.

A methodical technique based on the use of "elastic energy recuperators", which allows you to achieve<...>force content of the acquired structure of movements implemented in the conditions of "elastic energy recuperators<...>15 exercises in natural conditions of walking with the transition to running using "elastic energy recuperators"<...>Table 3 Changes in running performance after the use of "elastic energy recuperators" on a segment of 30 m<...>As a result of the study of the kinematic characteristics of running using "elastic energy recuperators

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Software has been developed for the automated determination of the physical and mechanical properties of materials and the construction of graphical dependences of properties on porosity

Industrial safety Issues of state regulation of safety in the use of atomic energy<...>in the Russian Federation are determined by the Federal Law of the Russian Federation dated November 21, 1995 No. 170-FZ "On the use of atomic energy<...>Khrunichev, RSC Energia, Russian Railways, Gazprom and many others.

The article is devoted to satire and metaphor in the works of N. A. Zabolotsky.

Only that which in science has a self-sufficient value turns out to be a reservoir of its energy in art.

THE EFFECT OF ULTRAVIOLET RAYS ON SOWING, YIELDING AND BIOCHEMICAL QUALITIES OF WINTER RYE SEEDS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

The impact of ultraviolet radiation on sowing seeds, the quality of seeds of winter rye Vyatka Moskovskaya depends on their ripeness. Thus, physiologically mature seeds with a one-year shelf life in laboratory studies did not respond to irradiation under standard germination conditions.

pro-. the influence of increased or decreased temperature on the germination of irradiated seeds was observed, then the energy<...>only to accelerate germination in the first days (at a temperature of -r-20 ° C), but "and" significantly increases energy<...>prolonged conditions, exposure to ultraviolet rays (30-60 minutes) leads to a "decrease in energy<...>showed that in the phase of milky ripeness at a 30-minute air-. action of ultraviolet radiation increases energy<...>seeds in the phase of milky, milky-wax and wax ripeness, irradiation with doses of 5-30-60 minutes increases energy

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EFFICIENCY OF FEEDING OF BROILER CHICKS WITH CAGE MAINTENANCE ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES

ALL-UNION ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF POULTRY FARMING

Work on the development of norms and ratios of nutrients in feed for broiler chickens grown in cages; was carried out in the department of feeding VNITIP. Our research is an integral part of the topic included in the thematic plan of VNITIP and sets the following tasks: - to study the characteristics of the growth of broiler chickens, their use of nutrients and some biologically active substances in outdoor and cage cultivation; - to determine the effect of different levels of metabolic energy and crude protein in broiler feed on their productive qualities and the use of the main nutrients of the feed in joint and sex-separated cultivation in cell batteries; clarify the need for broiler chickens in calcium and phosphorus; -.determine the economic efficiency of the revised feeding norms for broiler chickens when grown separately by sex in cage batteries.

": than ^ on the floor by 14.4%, exchange energy - by 14.5% and raw HF" ; : V. *:."<...>Gross "energy .. " 71.7" \ 68.0 Nitrogen. \ "*, "55.2" 51.8 Fat ":," _ 40.6 - energy and protein in feed for growth, - broilers with joint by gender<...>- "hCh-"̂ ~, Calculations showed, "that with an increase in the level of.energy n.-.."; ", protein cost!<...>> protein, * consumed with food, into energy and protein of edible parts of the body showed.

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GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SKELETON AND MUSCLES OF MINKS IN THE POST-EMBRYO PERIOD AUTHOR'S ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

This work aims to study age-related changes in the skeleton and muscles of minks against the background of studying the general patterns of growth and development of these animals.

more than 90 times from the moment of birth, and 160 times for males, which indicates a very high energy<...>Such a high-energy growth of minks, especially muscle tissue, significantly distinguishes them from other farm animals.<...>, which have a much lower growth energy. _ ; " " " " Relative weight of the entire musculature

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Guidelines for the implementation of independent work for masters in the discipline "Modern problems of technosphere safety" areas of training 280700.68 Technosphere safety under the master's program "Industrial ecology and rational use of natural resources"

The guidelines provide recommendations for independent work of masters in the discipline "Modern problems of technosphere safety" of training direction 280700.68 Technosphere safety under the master's program "Industrial Ecology and Rational Use of Natural Resources".

<...> <...> <...> <...>

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MALATE DEHYDROGENASE OF HIGHER PLANTS: PROPERTIES, FUNCTIONS AND REGULATION ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

VORONEZH ORDER OF LENIN STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER LENIN KOMSOMOL

The purpose of this work is to investigate the properties and mechanisms of regulation of the activity of NAD + NDH isoenzymes, and such distribution, tissue and subcellular localization of its molecular forms in the cells of different plants.

Calculated temperature coefficient (Chu * activation energy (E a k t), enthalpy C AIT), free<...>energy (&tf) and entropy I -as/) | characterizing the dependence of the rate reaction on temperature and<...>In accordance with Atkinson's concept of "cellular; charge of energy" with an increase in the level of ATP,

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ON ENZYMES OF THE CARBOXYLING PHASE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THE INTENSITY OF THE PROCESS ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: ORDER OF LENIN INSTITUTE OF BIOCHEMISTRY NAMED AFTER A. N. BACH OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR

The objectives of this work were: 1. Revealing the reasons for the low specific activity of ribulose diphosphate carboxylase; 2. Comparative study of the magnitude of the potential intensity of photosynthesis and carbon dioxide fixation by enzyme preparations in various plant species in order to determine the extent to which differences in assimilation capacity depend on the activity of photosynthetic enzymes; 3. Study of the regulation of the activity of photosynthetic enzymes in vitro.

Using solar energy, plant organisms in the process of photosynthesis form organic matter<...>biochemical congress (Leningrad, 1964), at the All-Union Conference "Photosynthesis and the use of solar energy.

Multilateral experimental studies of phenomena in liquid explosives of the oxidizer type (tetranitromethane, fluoronitroform, nitric acid) + fuel as a result of an electric spark discharge are systematized. Due to the transparency of the studied liquid explosives, using high-speed photographic equipment with nanosecond resolution, it was possible to trace the successive processes of breakdown and development of detonation. Various mechanisms of detonation initiation, depending on the conditions of energy release in the discharge channel, are revealed and studied. The possibility of initiating liquid explosives by an incomplete discharge is demonstrated. Of greatest interest is the ionization (high-voltage) mechanism with minimal energy costs. The influence of numerous initial factors on the probability of excitation of an explosion during breakdown, such as the chemical structure of the components of liquid explosives, their ratio and chemical interaction, dielectric characteristics, temperature and pressure, type of discharge, parameters of the initiating pulse, etc., has been studied.

RESEARCH IN THE FIELD OF RADIOMETRY AND IDOSIMETRY OF BETA RADIATIONS IN CONNECTION WITH THE APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF TECHNICAL SCIENCES

MOSCOW INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS

CONCLUSIONS 1. The absorption of beta radiation in thin layers of matter has been studied experimentally. Using the constructed counters of beta particles (T-25-BFL, flow counter with an open window, 4n-counter), the absorption curves of p-radiation C14, S33, Ca45, TI204, Sr90 + Y90 were obtained. It was found that the absorption curves of p-radiation of the studied radioisotopes in the initial part (0-2 mg/cm2) differ significantly from the exponent, namely, there is a more pronounced absorption of p-particles. At zero thickness of the absorbing layer, the upward deviation of the curves from the extrapolated exponent is 15-25% and is more pronounced, the lower the energy of the p-spectrum. The effect is explained by the relative increase in the role of multiple scattering for the soft part of the p-spectrum when radiation is filtered in layers of small thickness. 2. The effect of non-exponential absorption of beta-particles in thin layers of a substance found in the experiment is of practical importance. In absolute measurements of beta-activity by the end counter method. It has been established that the method of correcting for the absorption of beta particles on the basis of an exponential dependence, practiced in this method, leads to underestimated results and should be rejected ...

Tselishchev "found a solution for the energy absorption density at various points of the considered<...>was defined as the difference between the amount of energy generated in 1 sec. throughout the emitter<...>Tables and graphs of the function 0(

Economic problems of all areas of activity of the oil and gas complex, issues of corporate governance, analysis of the state and trends in the development of the oil market.

According to a report published by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA<...>In the field of energy production, these are solar photovoltaics, large-scale use of wind energy<...>and early successes in energy storage, the efficient extraction of unconventional oil and gas resources.<...>And although the share of coal in total primary energy supply fell to 27.2%, which is the lowest<...>Thus, in the IRENA energy transition scenario (Scenarios "Roadmap for Renewable Sources energy<...>The theoretical value of the oscillation amplitude, calculated on the basis of the law of conservation of sound energy

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(b. 1950) - American sociologist, one of the world's most famous experts in the field of "new economic sociology". He specialized in legal sciences and sociology. He holds a law degree from Stockholm University and a degree in sociology from Boston College (1978). He currently teaches as a professor of sociological theory and economic sociology at the University of Stockholm. His area of interest is the history of economic sociology (since the mid-1980s) and sociological theory. According to S., sociology at this stage acquires the character of "comparative macrosociology." Its main features are its focus on comparative studies between countries, the posing of questions affecting integral social systems, problems of world ecology, the organization of economic relations, and demography. At the same time, according to S., economic sociology shared with economic history an interest in the emergence and variability of actual market systems and other economic institutions.

S.'s main contribution to the history of economic sociology is the creation of the concept of the market as a social structure, the essence of which is the integration of economic and sociological relations to the analysis of the market. S. substantiated the insufficiency of defining market relations through pricing mechanisms (which is typical of economic theory), since this does not give a complete picture of the basic interaction of individuals included in the market. In the analysis of the history of the market (from antiquity to the present), S. pays special attention to the consideration of market relations through the concepts of "exchange" and "competition". Guided by the developments of the economists A. Marshall and D. Carlton and the ideas of the sociologists M. Weber and G. Simmel, S. created historical typologies of markets as social structures that differ significantly from each other in terms of the degree of development of exchange and depending on the level of development of competition. This approach made it possible to overcome the limitations of the traditional approach to the market as a mechanism for regulating the supply and demand of labor and to consider the market as a complex social phenomenon with the right to its own existence.

Main works: "Economic Sociology: Past and Future of Current Sociology" (1987); "Economics and Sociology - Rethinking Their Limits: Conversations with Economists and Sociologists" (1990); "Sociology of Economic Life" (1992, co-authored with M. Granovetter); "Textbook on economic sociology" (1994, co-edited with N. Smelser); "Max Weber and the Idea of Economic Sociology" (1998); "Joseph Schumpeter - His life and work" (1999); "Entrepreneurship: A Social Science Perspective" (2000) and others.

Fragments of his section "Markets as Social Structures", from the "Textbook on Economic Sociology" (in the journal: "Personality. Culture. Society" for 2002; translation by GN Sokolova) were translated into Russian from S.'s works.

G.N. Sokolova

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Svedberg Theodor Svedberg Career: Chemist
Birth: Sweden, 8/30/1884
Born near Gävle, Sweden, the only child of Elias Svedberg, iron foundry manager, and Augusta Alstermark. The father often took long country walks with the boy and allowed him to experiment in the factory laboratory. While studying at the Karolinska School in Örebro, Svedberg became interested in physics, chemistry and biology. Although he was more interested in botany, he decided to become a chemist in order to look deeper into biological processes.

In January 1904 he entered Uppsala University, and in September 1905 received a bachelor's degree. In the same year, his first article was published. Svedberg continued to study at Uppsala University, and in 1907 he was awarded a doctoral degree for a thesis on colloidal systems, in which he described a novel technique for using oscillatory electrical discharges between metal electrodes located in a liquid to obtain colloidal solutions of metals. He experimentally confirmed (1907) the theory of Brownian motion by Einstein and Smoluchowski, proved the existence of molecules (1907) and contributed to modern ideas about the atomic and molecular structure of matter.

The size of large colloidal particles could be determined by measuring their rate of precipitation, as shown by Jean-Baptiste Perrin (Nobel Prize in Physics, 1926), and yet most colloidal particles precipitate slowly, and this technology seemed impractical. There was a need to speed up the process, and thus to develop a more perfect method, which led to the creation of the ultracentrifuge.

Svedberg believed that the sedimentation of colloidal particles could be accelerated under conditions of a stronger gravitational field created by a high-speed centrifuge. During an eight-month internship at the University of Wisconsin in 1923, he began to build an optical centrifuge in which the settling of particles was recorded by photography. Since the particles moved, not only settling, but also under the action of convection currents, Svedberg was unable to determine their size. Since the high thermal conductivity of hydrogen could eliminate temperature differences, and, thus, convection currents, he, having designed a wedge-shaped cell and rotating it in a hydrogen atmosphere, together with his colleague G. Rinde, achieved deposition without convection (1924).

A year later, Svedberg discovered that proteins could still be forced to precipitate out of solution. He showed that all molecules of this protein are monodisperse, in contrast to the polydisperse particles of colloidal inorganic systems. Moreover, according to the rate of protein deposition, it is also allowed to draw a conclusion about the size of the molecule.

In 1926 Svedberg was awarded the Nobel Prize for his work in the field of dispersed systems.

In the new laboratory of physical chemistry, purposely built for Svedberg by the Swedish government after he was awarded the Nobel Prize, he spent another 15 years improving the design of the centrifuge. In January 1926, she tested her new model with oil rotors and achieved 40,100 rpm. Five years later, he created a new model, where the number of revolutions per minute had already reached 56,000. A long series of improvements in the design of the rotor led to the fact that in 1936 the centrifuge could do 120,000 revolutions per minute. At such a speed, a force of 525,000 F acted on the besieging system (where F is the power of gravity).

The next stage of the study was the analysis of the sedimentation characteristics of 100 proteins (including hemoglobin and hemocyanin) involved in the respiratory processes of many animals. It has been proven that the molecules of all these proteins are spherical, monodisperse and have a healthy molecular weight. Extending his ultracentrifuge research to other biopolymers, Svedberg found that carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch form long, thin, polydisperse molecules.

Thanks to the discoveries of Svedberg, the ultracentrifuge became the main instrument of biochemical analytical research for decades, and the agility of precipitation of biopolymers is measured in units called swedberg.

Svedberg was also interested in the phenomenon of radioactivity. His joint service with Daniel Strömholm (1871-1961) showed that some radioactive elements are chemically indistinguishable from each other and occupy the same position in the Periodic Table. This discovery anticipated the study of isotopes by F. Soddy (Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1921). In the late 1920s, Svedberg studied the effect of alpha particles emitted by radioactive substances on protein solutions. After the discovery of the neutron in 1932 by James Chadwick (1891-1974), Svedberg constructed a small neutron generator to study neutron irradiation and obtain radioactive isotopes as chemical and biological tracers.

Svedberg made a huge contribution to strengthening the connection between academic science and the practical application of scientific achievements. During the Second World War, he achieved the deployment of synthetic rubber production in Sweden.