• Domestic science and medicine in the 19th - early 20th centuries Chemistry of the 19th century in medicine
• What are peptides? Types and types of peptides. All about peptides and anti-aging cosmetics with peptides Additional peptides are not formed
• Toxic effect on humans of hazardous chemicals
• Radioautography Method of autoradiography in cytology
• Identification of bacteria by antigenic structure
• Organic matter in wastewater What are organic compounds in water
• Hydrogen index (pH factor)
• What is the pH of water and why is it important to know it?
• Redox potential Redox systems
• Reversible redox system Reversible redox systems

Foreword

The book brought to your attention is a textbook on physical chemistry, intended mainly for university students and teachers. It summarizes many years of experience in teaching physical chemistry to students of natural science faculties of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. An undoubted influence on the choice of material and the nature of its presentation was exerted by the communication of the authors with students and teachers of the faculties of Moscow State University. Our book differs from classical textbooks on physical chemistry in that, firstly, the theoretical material is presented in a concise and highly concentrated form, and, secondly, it is supported by a large number of examples, tasks and exercises. For those who want to study individual theoretical issues in more detail, we have compiled a detailed bibliography for each chapter.

The predecessor of this book was our collection "Problems in Physical Chemistry" (Moscow: Exam, 2003). Constantly using it

in work, we came to the conclusion that the theoretical material presented in it needs serious processing. The level of this revision turned out to be so deep that a new book actually appeared, in which the main emphasis is no longer on problems, but on the theoretical principles of physical chemistry. The sections devoted to the fundamental principles and applied aspects of chemical thermodynamics have changed the most. In addition, completely new sections have been added, which review modern scientific achievements.

in areas of nonlinear dynamics and chemical dynamics in the femtosecond range. When presenting the theoretical material, we tried to be logical and tried to show the connection of any physical co-chemical results, applications and formulas with the fundamentals, that is, with the fundamental laws of chemical thermodynamics and chemical kinetics.

The book consists of six chapters, covering the main sections of the course of physical chemistry, one can even say "classical" sections, bearing in mind the fact that not only at Moscow State University, but also at most other universities, a number of sections of traditional physical chemistry, such as colloidal chemistry, the structure of molecules, spectroscopy, have the status of independent courses.

We decided to present the material of each paragraph in the following sequence:

1) theoretical introduction to each section containing basic definitions and formulas;

2) examples of problem solving;

3) tasks for independent solution.

This form of presentation, in our opinion, is optimal.

for conducting seminars and preparing for the exam in physical chemistry.

Most of the topics include 20–30 tasks of varying degrees of complexity and several examples of their solution. In all sections, we tried, if possible, to combine computational and semantic tasks. Many problems contain a "zest", that is, they require a deep understanding of the subject, intuition and some imagination, and not just substituting numbers into a known formula. Answers or instructions for solving are given for all calculation problems. Some problems are taken from well-known textbooks and problem books in physical chemistry (see references), many problems are original developments of the authors. The diversity of tasks and the difference in levels of complexity allow us to hope that this collection can be used not only in traditional physical chemistry courses, but also in courses with similar content, for example, general or inorganic chemistry.

We tried to make this textbook as self-sufficient as possible, and therefore included tables of physicochemical data and a list of the most commonly used mathematical formulas in the appendix. The application also contains a list of basic physicochemical formulas, which will be useful for students for express preparation for the exam.

We express our sincere gratitude to Professor M.V. Korobov for critical remarks, the consideration of which made it possible to improve the quality of the book.

Leninskiye Gory, 1, building 3, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University or

e-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

V.V. Eremin S.I. Kargov I.A. Uspenskaya N.E. Kuzmenko V.V. Lunin

April 2005

1 Fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics

§ 1. Basic concepts of thermodynamics. State equations

Basic concepts

Thermodynamics is a science that studies the mutual transitions of heat and work in equilibrium systems and during the transition to equilibrium. Chemical thermodynamics is a branch of physical chemistry in which thermodynamic methods are used to analyze chemical and physicochemical phenomena: chemical reactions, phase transitions, and processes in solutions.

The object of study of thermodynamics is thermodynamic system- a material object isolated from the external environment with the help of a real or imaginary boundary surface and capable of exchanging energy and (or) matter with other bodies. Any thermodynamic system is a model of a real object, therefore its correspondence to reality depends on the approximations that are chosen within the framework of the model used. Systems are:

open, in which there is an exchange of energy and matter with the environment;

closed, in which there is an exchange of energy with the environment, but there is no exchange of matter;

isolated, in which there is no exchange with the environment of either energy or matter.

The state of any thermodynamic system can be described

quantified with thermodynamic variables. All of them are interconnected, and for the convenience of constructing a mathematical apparatus, they are conditionally divided into independent variables and

thermodynamic functions. Variables that are fixed by the conditions for the existence of the system, and therefore cannot change within the problem under consideration, are called thermodynamic parameters. There are variables:

external, which are determined by the properties and coordinates of bodies in the environment and depend on the contacts of the system with the environment, for example, mass or number of components n, electric field strength E; the number of such variables is limited;

internal, which depend only on the properties of the system itself, for example, density ρ, internal energy U; unlike external variables, the number of such properties is unlimited;

extensive, which are directly proportional to the mass of the system or the number of particles, for example, volume V, energy U, entropy S, heat capacity C;

intense, which do not depend on the mass of the system or the number of particles, for example, temperature T, density ρ, pressure p. The ratio of any two extensive variables is an intensive parameter, such as partial mole volume V or mole fraction x.

A special place in chemical thermodynamics is occupied by variables expressing quantitative composition systems. In homogeneous homogeneous systems, we are talking about the chemical composition, and in heterogeneous systems, we are talking about the chemical and phase composition. In closed systems, the composition can change as a result of chemical reactions and the redistribution of substances between parts of the system, in open systems, due to the transfer of a substance through the control surface. In order to characterize the qualitative and quantitative composition of a system, it is not enough to indicate its elemental composition (the atoms of which elements and in what quantities are present in the system). It is necessary to know what real substances (molecules, ions, complexes, etc.) the system consists of. These substances are called constituents. The choice of system components may not be the only one, but it is necessary that:

with their help it was possible to describe any possible changes in the chemical composition of each of the parts of the system;

their quantities met certain requirements, for example, the conditions of electrical neutrality of the system, material balance, etc.

The constituents and their quantities can change during the course of a chemical reaction. However, one can always choose a certain minimum set of substances sufficient to describe the composition of the system. Such components of the system are called independent components

mi, or components.

Among the thermodynamic variables, generalized forces and generalized coordinates. The generalized forces characterize the state

balance. These include pressure p, chemical potential µ, electric potential ϕ, surface tension σ. Generalized forces are intensive parameters.

Generalized coordinates are quantities that change under the action of the corresponding generalized forces. These include volume V, amount of matter n, charge e, area Ω. All generalized coordinates are extensive parameters.

A set of intense thermodynamic properties determines the state of the system. The following states of thermodynamic systems are distinguished:

equilibrium, when all the characteristics of the system are constant and there are no flows of matter or energy in it. At the same time, they distinguish:

- a stable (stable) state, in which any infinitesimal impact causes only an infinitesimal change in state, and when this impact is eliminated, the system returns to its original state;

- a metastable state, which differs from a stable one in that some final actions cause final changes in the state that do not disappear when these actions are eliminated;

non-equilibrium (unstable, labile ) a state in which any infinitely small action causes a finite change in the state of the system;

stationary, when the independent variables are constant in time, but there are flows in the system.

If the state of the system changes, then they say that the system

is a thermodynamic process. All thermodynamic properties are strictly defined only in equilibrium states. A feature of the description of thermodynamic processes is that they are considered not in time, but in a generalized space of independent thermodynamic variables, i.e. characterized not by the rate of change in properties, but by the magnitude of the change. A process in thermodynamics is a sequence of states of a system leading from one initial set of thermodynamic variables to another, the final one.

There are processes:

spontaneous, for the implementation of which it is not necessary to expend energy;

non-spontaneous, occurring only with the expenditure of energy;

reversible, when the transition of the system from one state to another and back can occur through a sequence of the same states, and after returning to its original state, there are no macroscopic changes in the environment;

quasi-static, or equilibrium, which occur under the action

the effect of an infinitesimal difference of generalized forces;

14 Chap. 1. Fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics

irreversible, or non-equilibrium, when as a result of the process it is impossible to return both the system and its environment to its original state.

AT During the process, some thermodynamic variables can be fixed. In particular, there is an isothermal ( T = const), isochoric (V = const), isobaric (p = const) and adiabatic (Q = 0, δ Q = 0) processes.

Thermodynamic functions are divided into:

state functions, which depend only on the state of the system and do not depend on the path by which this state is received;

transition functions, the value of which depends on the path along which the system changes.

Examples of state functions: energy U, enthalpy H, Helmholtz energy F, Gibbs energy G, entropy S. Thermodynamic variables - volume V , pressure p , temperature T - can also be considered state functions, since they uniquely characterize the state of the system. Examples of transition functions: heat Q and work W .

State functions are characterized by the following properties:

infinitesimal function change f is the total differential (denoted df );

function change on state transition 1 to state 2 op-

is determined only by these states: ∫ df = f 2 − f 1 ;

as a result of any cyclic process, the state function does not change:∫v df = 0 .

There are several ways of axiomatic construction of thermodynamics. In this edition, we proceed from the fact that the conclusions and relations of thermodynamics can be formulated on the basis of two postulates (initial positions) and three laws (beginnings).

The first initial position, or the basic postulate of thermodynamics:

Any isolated system eventually comes to an equilibrium state and cannot spontaneously get out of it.

This provision limits the size of the systems that thermodynamics describes. It does not hold for systems of astronomical scale and microscopic systems with a small number of particles. Galactic-sized systems do not spontaneously come into equilibrium due to long-range gravitational forces. Microscopic systems can spontaneously go out of equilibrium; this phenomenon is called fluctuations. In statistic-

It has been shown in physical physics that the relative value of fluctuations of thermodynamic quantities is of the order of 1/ N , where N is the number of particles in the system. If we assume that relative values ​​less than 10–9 cannot be detected experimentally, then the lower limit for the number of particles in a thermodynamic system is 1018 .

The spontaneous transition of a system from a non-equilibrium state to an equilibrium state is called relaxation. The basic postulate of thermodynamics does not say anything about the relaxation time, it states that the equilibrium state of the system will be reached without fail, but the duration of such a process is not defined in any way. In the classical equilibrium ter-

modinamics have no concept of time at all.

In order to use thermodynamics for the analysis of real processes, it is necessary to develop some practical criteria by which it would be possible to judge the completion of the process, i.e. reaching an equilibrium state. The state of the system can be considered equilibrium if the current value of the variable differs from the equilibrium value by an amount less than the error with which this variable is measured. The relaxation process can be considered completed if the observed property of the system remains unchanged for a time comparable to the relaxation time for this variable. Since several processes can occur simultaneously in the system, when considering the conditions for achieving equilibrium, it is necessary to compare the relaxation times for different variables. Very often, a system that is not in equilibrium as a whole turns out to be in equilibrium with respect to processes with short relaxation times, and their thermodynamic description turns out to be quite correct.

The second initial position, or the zeroth law of thermodynamics, describes the properties of systems in a state of thermal equilibrium:

If system A is in thermal equilibrium with system B, which in turn is in equilibrium with system C, then systems A and C are also in thermal equilibrium.

The second postulate speaks of the existence of a special intensive variable that characterizes the state of thermal equilibrium and is called temperature. Systems in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature. Thus, the zero law is a postulate about the existence of temperature. Not only thermal, but also any other equilibrium (mechanical, diffusion, etc.) has transitivity, but in thermodynamics only thermal equilibrium is postulated, and the alignment of all other intensive variables on the control surface is a consequence of this postulate and the second law of thermodynamics.

State equations

It follows from the postulates of thermodynamics that, at equilibrium, the internal variables of a thermodynamic system are functions of external variables and temperature. For example, if a system contains K components, occupies a volume V and has a temperature T, then at equilibrium, any thermodynamic characteristics of this system, such as the amounts and concentrations of compounds formed, the number of phases, pressure, heat capacity, thermal expansion coefficient, and others, are functions of at most, than (K + 2) independent variables. If the system is closed, i.e. cannot exchange matter with the environment, then two independent variables are sufficient to describe its properties. This implies the existence equations of state thermodynamic system, relating internal variables to external variables and temperature or internal energy. In the general case, the equation of state has the form:

f (a , b ,T ) = 0 or a = a (b ,T ) ,

where a is a set of internal parameters, b is a set of external parameters, T is temperature.

If the internal parameter is pressure and the external parameter is volume, then the equation of state

p = p(V , n, T )

called thermal. If the internal parameter is energy and the external parameter is volume, then the equation of state

U = U(V, n, T)

called calorie.

The number of independent equations of state is equal to the variance of the system, i.e. the number of independent variables sufficient to describe the thermodynamic state of the equilibrium system (it is one more than the number of external variables).

In the case of a closed system in the absence of external fields and surface effects, the number of external variables is 1 (V ), respectively, the number of equations of state is 2. If an open system contains K components and can change volume, then the number of external variables is K + 1, and the number equations of state is

K+2.

If the thermal and caloric equations of state are known, then the apparatus of thermodynamics makes it possible to determine all the thermodynamic properties of the system, i.e. get its complete thermodynamic description

Name: Fundamentals of Physical Chemistry - Theory and Problems. 2005.

The book is a short course in modern physical chemistry. It is built according to the classical principle: each paragraph begins with a presentation of theoretical material, followed by examples of problem solving and tasks for independent solution. In total, the book contains about 800 tasks in the main sections of physical chemistry. Answers or instructions for solving are given to all calculation problems. The appendix contains all the information necessary for solving problems: tables of thermodynamic and kinetic data, a list of basic physicochemical formulas and a mathematical minimum.

The book is intended for students and teachers of universities, as well as chemical, biological and medical universities.

The book brought to your attention is a textbook on physical chemistry, intended mainly for university students and teachers. It summarizes many years of experience in teaching physical chemistry to students of natural science faculties of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. An undoubted influence on the choice of material and the nature of its presentation was exerted by the communication of the authors with students and teachers of the faculties of Moscow State University. Our book differs from classical textbooks on physical chemistry in that, firstly, the theoretical material is presented in a compressed and highly concentrated form, and. secondly, it is supported by a large number of examples, tasks and exercises. For those. for those who want to study individual theoretical issues more thoroughly, we have compiled a detailed bibliography for each chapter.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 5
CHAPTER 1. BASICS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
§ 1. Basic concepts of thermodynamics. Equations of State 7
§ 2. The first law of thermodynamics 24
§ 3. Thermochemistry 36
§ 4. The second law of thermodynamics. Entropy 49
§ 5. Thermodynamic potentials 65
CHAPTER 2 APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
§ 6. Thermodynamics of non-electrolyte solutions 83
§ 7. Heterogeneous equilibria. Gibbs phase rule. Phase equilibria in one-component systems 105
§ 8. Phase equilibria in two-component systems 123
§ 9. Chemical equilibrium 140
§ 10. Adsorption 158
CHAPTER 3 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
§ 11. Thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 171
§ 12. Electrical conductivity of electrolyte solutions 179
§ 13. Electrochemical circuits 191
CHAPTER 4 STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS
§ 14. Basic concepts of statistical thermodynamics. Ensembles 206
§ 15. Sum over States and Statistical Integral 219
§ 16. Statistical calculation of thermodynamic properties of ideal and real systems 240
CHAPTER 5 CHEMICAL KINETICS
§ 17. Basic concepts of chemical kinetics 258
§ 18. Kinetics of reactions of whole order 268
§ 19. Methods for determining the order of the reaction 277
§ 20. Influence of temperature on the rate of chemical reactions 286
§ 21. Kinetics of complex reactions 297
§ 22. Approximate methods of chemical kinetics 310
§ 23. Catalysis 323
§ 24. Photochemical reactions 346
§ 25. Theories of chemical kinetics 356
§ 26. Chemical dynamics 377
CHAPTER 6 ELEMENTS OF NON-EQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS
§ 27. Linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics 393
§ 28. Strongly nonequilibrium systems 403
APPS
Appendix I. Units of measurement of physical quantities 412
Annex II. Fundamental physical constants 412
Annex III. Tables of physico-chemical data 413
Annex IV. Mathematical minimum 424
Appendix V. List of basic physico-chemical formulas 433
Chapter 1. Fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics 433
Chapter 2. Applications of chemical thermodynamics 436
Chapter 3. Electrochemistry 439
Chapter 4. Statistical thermodynamics 441
Chapter 5 Chemical Kinetics 442
Chapter 6. Elements of non-equilibrium thermodynamics 445
ANSWERS 446
LITERATURE 468
INDEX 471

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In a textbook written by teachers of the Faculty of Chemistry of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov, the modern theoretical foundations of chemical thermodynamics and chemical kinetics are presented, their practical applications are considered. Compared with the first (Exam, 2005), the new edition has been significantly revised and supplemented. The book consists of two parts: in the first - theory, in the second - tasks, questions, exercises, as well as tables of physical and chemical data, basic formulas, mathematical minimum. Answers or instructions for solving are given for all problems.

For students and teachers of universities and technical universities, as well as specialized chemical schools.

Foreword

The textbook on physical chemistry offered to the attention of readers is intended for students and teachers of universities and universities of the chemical direction. It summarizes many years of experience in teaching physical chemistry to students of natural science faculties of Lomonosov Moscow State University. This is the second edition of the book. Compared with the previous edition, the book has been significantly revised and supplemented. First of all, this concerns the theoretical material: if in the first edition only the material that is necessary for solving problems was presented, now the theoretical sections have acquired an independent character, the presentation has become more rigorous and logical. We are constantly tracing the connection between practical applications of physical chemistry and fundamental theoretical positions. The sections devoted to chemical and statistical thermodynamics have undergone the greatest revision. In the new version of the textbook, the theory occupies such a volume that we considered it necessary to separate it into a separate part.

The tasks and examples that now make up the second part have remained almost unchanged, however, for the convenience of teachers, we have supplemented them with theoretical questions and options for tests of various levels of complexity, which makes it possible to use the material not only in chemistry, but also in related faculties. For most topics, there are 20-30 tasks of varying degrees of complexity and several examples of their solution. In all sections, we tried, if possible, to combine computational and semantic tasks. Answers or instructions for solving are given to all calculation problems. The versatility of the tasks and the difference in the levels of complexity allow us to hope that this textbook can be used not only in traditional physical chemistry courses, but also in courses that are similar in content, for example, general or inorganic chemistry.

The first, theoretical, part of the book consists of six chapters, covering the main sections of the physical chemistry course, with the exception of colloidal chemistry and the structure of molecules, which have the status of independent courses at Moscow State University and at most other universities.

We tried to make this textbook as self-sufficient as possible, and therefore included in the appendix (in Part 2) tables of physical and chemical data and a list of the most commonly used mathematical formulas. The application also contains a list of basic physical and chemical formulas, which will be useful for students to prepare for tests, colloquia or exams.

For convenience, a subject index is placed in part 1 of the textbook

The authors will be grateful for any comments, wishes and suggestions that can be sent to the address 119991, Moscow, V-234, Leninskiye Gory, 1, building 3, Faculty of Chemistry, Moscow State University or by e-mail:
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

V.V. Eremin
I.A. Uspenskaya
S.I. Kargov
NOT. Kuzmenko
V.V. Lunin

M.: Exam, 2005. - 480 p. (Series "Classical university textbook")

The book is a short course in modern physical chemistry. It is built according to the classical principle: each paragraph begins with a presentation of theoretical material, followed by examples of problem solving and tasks for independent solution. In total, the book contains about 800 tasks in the main sections of physical chemistry. Answers or instructions for solving are given to all calculation problems. The appendix contains all the information necessary for solving problems: tables of thermodynamic and kinetic data, a list of basic physicochemical formulas and a mathematical minimum.

The book is intended for students and teachers of universities, as well as chemical, biological and medical universities.

• TABLE OF CONTENTS
• FOREWORD 5
• CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
• § 1. Basic concepts of thermodynamics. Equations of State 7
• § 2. The first law of thermodynamics 24
• § 3. Thermochemistry 36
• § 4. The second law of thermodynamics. Entropy 49
• § 5. Thermodynamic potentials 65
• CHAPTER 2. APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
• § 6. Thermodynamics of non-electrolyte solutions 83
• § 7. Heterogeneous equilibria. Gibbs phase rule. Phase equilibria in one-component systems 105
• § 8. Phase equilibria in two-component systems 123
• § 9. Chemical equilibrium 140
• § 10. Adsorption 158
• CHAPTER 3. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
• § 11. Thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 171
• § 12. Electrical conductivity of electrolyte solutions 179
• § 13. Electrochemical circuits 191
• CHAPTER 4. STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS
• § 14. Basic concepts of statistical thermodynamics. Ensembles 206
• § 15. Sum over States and Statistical Integral 219
• § 16. Statistical calculation of thermodynamic properties of ideal and real systems 240
• CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL KINETICS
• § 17. Basic concepts of chemical kinetics 258
• § 18. Kinetics of reactions of whole order 268
• § 19. Methods for determining the order of the reaction 277
• § 20. Influence of temperature on the rate of chemical reactions 286
• § 21. Kinetics of complex reactions 297
• § 22. Approximate methods of chemical kinetics 310
• § 23. Catalysis 323
• § 24. Photochemical reactions 346
• § 25. Theories of chemical kinetics 356
• § 26. Chemical dynamics 377
• CHAPTER 6. ELEMENTS OF NON-EQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS
• § 27. Linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics 393
• § 28. Strongly nonequilibrium systems 403
• APPS
• Appendix I. Units of measurement of physical quantities 412
• Annex II. Fundamental physical constants 412
• Annex III. Tables of physico-chemical data 413
• Annex IV. Mathematical minimum 424
• Appendix V. List of basic physico-chemical formulas 433
• Chapter 1. Fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics 433
• Chapter 2. Applications of chemical thermodynamics 436
• Chapter 3. Electrochemistry 439
• Chapter 4. Statistical thermodynamics 441
• Chapter 5 Chemical Kinetics 442
• Chapter 6. Elements of non-equilibrium thermodynamics 445
• ANSWERS 446
• LITERATURE 468
• INDEX 471

Fundamentals of physical chemistry. Theory and tasks. Eremin V.V., Kargov S.I. and etc.

M.: 2005. - 480 p. (Series "Classical university textbook")

The book is a short course in modern physical chemistry. It is built according to the classical principle: each paragraph begins with a presentation of theoretical material, followed by examples of problem solving and tasks for independent solution. In total, the book contains about 800 tasks in the main sections of physical chemistry. Answers or instructions for solving are given to all calculation problems. The appendix contains all the information necessary for solving problems: tables of thermodynamic and kinetic data, a list of basic physicochemical formulas and a mathematical minimum.

The book is intended for students and teachers of universities, as well as chemical, biological and medical universities.

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Size: 5 MB

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Format: djvu

Size: 7.54 MB

Download: drive.google

TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD 5
CHAPTER 1. FUNDAMENTALS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
§ 1. Basic concepts of thermodynamics. Equations of State 7
§ 2. The first law of thermodynamics 24
§ 3. Thermochemistry 36
§ 4. The second law of thermodynamics. Entropy 49
§ 5. Thermodynamic potentials 65
CHAPTER 2. APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS
§ 6. Thermodynamics of non-electrolyte solutions 83
§ 7. Heterogeneous equilibria. Gibbs phase rule. Phase equilibria in one-component systems 105
§ 8. Phase equilibria in two-component systems 123
§ 9. Chemical equilibrium 140
§ 10. Adsorption 158
CHAPTER 3. ELECTROCHEMISTRY
§ 11. Thermodynamics of electrolyte solutions 171
§ 12. Electrical conductivity of electrolyte solutions 179
§ 13. Electrochemical circuits 191
CHAPTER 4. STATISTICAL THERMODYNAMICS
§ 14. Basic concepts of statistical thermodynamics. Ensembles 206
§ 15. Sum over States and Statistical Integral 219
§ 16. Statistical calculation of thermodynamic properties of ideal and real systems 240
CHAPTER 5. CHEMICAL KINETICS
§ 17. Basic concepts of chemical kinetics 258
§ 18. Kinetics of reactions of whole order 268
§ 19. Methods for determining the order of the reaction 277
§ 20. Influence of temperature on the rate of chemical reactions 286
§ 21. Kinetics of complex reactions 297
§ 22. Approximate methods of chemical kinetics 310
§ 23. Catalysis 323
§ 24. Photochemical reactions 346
§ 25. Theories of chemical kinetics 356
§ 26. Chemical dynamics 377
CHAPTER 6. ELEMENTS OF NON-EQUILIBRIUM THERMODYNAMICS
§ 27. Linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics 393
§ 28. Strongly nonequilibrium systems 403
APPS
Appendix I. Units of measurement of physical quantities 412
Annex II. Fundamental physical constants 412
Annex III. Tables of physico-chemical data 413
Annex IV. Mathematical minimum 424
Appendix V. List of basic physico-chemical formulas 433
Chapter 1. Fundamentals of chemical thermodynamics 433
Chapter 2. Applications of chemical thermodynamics 436
Chapter 3. Electrochemistry 439
Chapter 4. Statistical thermodynamics 441
Chapter 5 Chemical Kinetics 442
Chapter 6. Elements of non-equilibrium thermodynamics 445
ANSWERS 446
LITERATURE 468
INDEX 471

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