Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich, chemist. Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich - interesting facts The scientific activity of Dmitry Ivanovich

DEATH CHOOSE THE BEST... I still have an old notebook in my bag - from last autumn, from Rock Asia. Its cover is smeared with paste - this is from the dense, powerful "sound" of Yanka Diaghileva's group - a punk-folk-rock-bard - the rod dripped. In the same place in the notebook, two densely

A student of the 11th “t” class and a student of the 11th “p” class of the First University Gymnasium named after Academician V.V. Magpies of the city of Veliky Novgorod, Novgorod region Oligerov Nikolai and Nesterova Lidia.

It is impossible to imagine the life of modern society without organic compounds, which are used in all branches of human activity. Currently, about 10 million organic substances are known, and this number is constantly increasing. New materials appear that meet the modern requirements of engineering and technology. The properties of materials depend on their structure, the study of which becomes a matter of paramount importance. To create new materials, it is necessary, first of all, to “construct” the structure of this material.

Organic chemistry, before becoming a science, went through several stages in its development: the first, when only empirical information was accumulated about organic substances; the second, when the first attempts were made to generalize this information, which manifested itself in the fact that organic substances began to differ from mineral ones; the third, when chemists came to the correct conclusion about the features in the composition of organic compounds and organic chemistry received its modern name; fourth - the creation of the first not yet perfect theories that tried to connect the composition of organic compounds with properties and even get an idea of ​​​​the "blocks" that make up organic compounds. And only then, after the creation of the theory of chemical structure, did the "harmonious combination" of factual and theoretical knowledge, which contains modern chemistry as a science, come.

The purpose of this study: to compare the theoretical ideas about the structure of organic compounds by D.I. Mendeleev and A.M. Butlerov.

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MOU "First University Gymnasium

named after academician V.V. Soroka»

SCIENTIFIC WORK IN CHEMISTRY,

DEDICATED TO THE 175TH ANNIVERSARY OF THE BIRTH OF D.I. MENDELEEV,

ON THE TOPIC

“ COMPARISON OF D.I. MENDELEEV AND A.M. BUTLEROV ON THE THEORY OF THE STRUCTURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS”

Completed:

Student 11 "t" class

and a student of the 11th "n" class

First University Gymnasium

named after academician V.V. magpies

cities of Veliky Novgorod

Novgorod region

Oligerov Nikolay and

Nesterova Lydia.

Scientific adviser:

Bazhenkova Nina Semyonovna,

chemistry teacher

First University Gymnasium

named after academician V.V. magpies

Novgorod region, Veliky Novgorod

st. Bolshaya Moskovskaya, 22/3

2008

page

Introduction 3

Chapter 1. Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov 5

Chapter 2. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev 7

Chapter 3. Views of Mendeleev and Butlerov on the structure of organic substances 9

Conclusion 16

Bibliography 17

Annex 1. Portrait of A. M. Butlerov 18

Appendix 2. Cover of the textbook by A. M. Butlerov "Introduction to the full study of organic chemistry" 19

Annex 3. Portrait of D. I. Mendeleev 20

Appendix 4. Cover of the textbook by D. I. Mendeleev "Organic Chemistry" 21

INTRODUCTION

It is impossible to imagine the life of modern society without organic compounds, which are used in all branches of human activity. Currently, about 10 million organic substances are known, and this number is constantly increasing. New materials appear that meet the modern requirements of engineering and technology. The properties of materials depend on their structure, the study of which becomes a matter of paramount importance. To create new materials, it is necessary, first of all, to “construct” the structure of this material.

Organic chemistry, before becoming a science, went through several stages in its development: the first, when only empirical information was accumulated about organic substances; the second, when the first attempts were made to generalize this information, which manifested itself in the fact that organic substances began to differ from mineral ones; the third, when chemists came to the correct conclusion about the features in the composition of organic compounds and organic chemistry received its modern name; fourth - the creation of the first not yet perfect theories that tried to connect the composition of organic compounds with properties and even get an idea of ​​​​the "blocks" that make up organic compounds. And only then, after the creation of the theory of chemical structure, did the "harmonious combination" of factual and theoretical knowledge, which contains modern chemistry as a science, come.

The purpose of this study: to compare the theoretical ideas about the structure of organic compounds by D.I. Mendeleev and A.M. Butlerov.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved:

To study literary sources reflecting the development of views on the structure and properties of organic compounds;

To get acquainted with the main stages of life and scientific activity of D. I. Mendeleev and A. M. Butlerov;

Get acquainted with the original textbooks on organic chemistry by D. I. Mendeleev and A. M. Butlerov.

CHAPTER 1. ALEXANDER MIKHAILOVICH BUTLEROV

Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov was born on August 25 (old style) 1828 in the city of Chistopol, Kazan province. In 1844, sixteen-year-old A. M. Butlerov entered the natural department of the Physics and Mathematics Faculty of Kazan University, where his teachers were the famous Klaus and Zinin.

Having defended his dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Chemistry in 1854, A.M. Butlerov took up experimental work and achieved outstanding results in this activity. Simultaneously with the development of Butlerov's talent as a first-class experimenter, his genius as a theoretician awakens. He criticizes the theory of types and the theory of substitutions, which were dominant at that time in the field of studying organic compounds, and comes to the conclusion that they no longer contain all the factual material.

On September 19, 1861, at the congress of German doctors and naturalists in the city of Speyer, Butlerov makes his famous report "On the chemical structure of bodies." He develops in a completely completed form new views on the structure of organic compounds and for the first time proposes to introduce the term "chemical structure" or "chemical structure" into chemical science, meaning by this the distribution of chemical affinity forces, or, in other words, the distribution of bonds of individual atoms that form a chemical structure. particle.

Butlerov's report and his new views on the structure of organic compounds were coldly received by German chemists, with the exception of individuals, of whom Erlenmeyer, later Wislitsenus, must be mentioned first of all.

Not satisfied with the development of the provisions of the theory of chemical structure, Butlerov comes to the conclusion that for the success of the new doctrine, it is necessary to obtain new facts arising from it. Therefore, soon after returning to Kazan, he began extensive experimental research, the main result of which was, first of all, the famous Butler synthesis of trimethylcarbinol, the first representative of tertiary alcohols.

Butlerov's discovery of an unknown class of tertiary alcohols, predicted by the theory of chemical structure, was undoubtedly of great importance for the strengthening and recognition of the new doctrine. Obtaining trimethylcarbinol to strengthen the theory of chemical structure was almost as important as the discovery of unknown elements predicted by Mendeleev to strengthen and recognize the periodic law.

In the same period of the greatest development of his talent, Butlerov began to publish his famous textbook "Introduction to the full study of organic chemistry." The first issue of this textbook appeared in 1864, the entire edition was completed in 1866.

The vigorous scientific and social activity of A. M. Butlerov ended abruptly. On August 5 (old style), 1886, Butlerov died at the age of 58 in the village of Butlerovka, Kazan province, where he was buried.

CHAPTER 2. DMITRY IVANOVICH MENDELEEV

1841-1849 - Dmitri Mendeleev takes a course of study at the same gymnasium, the director of which was his father. Maria Dmitrievna, seeing her son's desire and ability for science, took him first to Moscow, and then to St. Petersburg. In St. Petersburg, Mendeleev began to study at the Pedagogical Institute, at the department of natural sciences of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics.

1856 - Mendeleev returns to St. Petersburg, enters St. Petersburg University as a Privatdozent. He defends his thesis on the topic "On specific volumes" and becomes a master of chemistry and physics. At the same time he lectures at the university on organic and theoretical chemistry. In October of the same year he defended his second dissertation.

1859 - Dmitry Ivanovich was sent abroad. Settled in Heidelberg, set up a small laboratory there. Actively works on the study of the capillarity of liquids. He writes scientific articles "On the expansion of liquids", "On the temperature of absolute boiling". In 1860 he took part in a chemical congress in Karlsruhe.

In 1861, Mendeleev returned to St. Petersburg, to his place as Privatdozent at the university. Publishes the course "Organic Chemistry" - the first textbook in Russia devoted to this topic. For this work, Dmitry Ivanovich was awarded the Demidov Prize. In the same year he wrote an article "On the limit of СnH2n + hydrocarbons".

In 1863, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev became a professor at the St. Petersburg Institute of Technology.

The beginning of the joint activity of Butlerov and Mendeleev falls on 1868, when Mendeleev suggested that Butlerov, who worked at Kazan University, run for the chair of chemistry at St. Petersburg University for the post of extraordinary professor.

1869 - Dmitry Ivanovich creates the famous periodic table of elements.

CHAPTER 3. VIEWS OF MENDELEEV AND BUTLEROV ON THE STRUCTURE OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES

The accumulation of a large amount of experimental material in organic chemistry required the creation of a unified theory capable of not only explaining, but, most importantly, scientifically foreseeing new facts, just as it became possible to predict the existence of new elements with certain properties using the Periodic Law of D.I. Mendeleev.

The first attempt to streamline disparate ideas about the structure of organic substances was the introduction of the concept of “radical” (late 18th century). A radical is an unchanging group of several atoms, which, in the course of chemical reactions, can pass from the starting substance to the reaction product. D. I. Mendeleev partially shared these views: “...the radical of a body is that part of its elements which remains unchanged in the simplest reactions of the body, especially in substitutions. The theory of radicals was fully developed in the 30s of the 19th century, after the discovery of the benzoyl radical by J. Liebig and F. Wöhler. Then the theory of complex radicals was replaced by the theory of chemical types, created by C. F. Gerard by the middle of the 19th century. According to this theory, all organic substances known at that time were classified according to the nature of chemical transformations into five types: the type of hydrogen, the type of hydrogen chloride, the type of water, the type of ammonia, and the type of methane. By replacing a hydrogen atom in any of these types with a radical, various organic compounds can be obtained.

The theory of types made it possible to create a clearer system of classification of organic compounds and showed the possibility of the transition of some compounds to others.

The limitation of this theory was that it mainly considered only substitution reactions and could not explain other types of organic transformations, for example, addition reactions. One of the first to draw attention to this shortcoming was D.I. Mendeleev.This outstanding scientist played a significant role in the development of organic chemistry in our country. Despite the fact that organic chemistry was not the main area of ​​his scientific interests, he nevertheless left a noticeable mark in this direction of his scientific activity.

D.I. Mendeleev believed that “inmaintaining ... types greatly facilitates the study of reactions, because the reactions of bodies assigned to a given type occur in parallel, or, in other words, bodies that have parallel reactions are assigned to the same type.

But, basically sharing the provisions of the theory of types, in his experiments he obtained facts that do not fit into this theory, and tried to give them his own explanation: “...such a typical idea of ​​the composition of bodies, as can be seen from the very essence of its origin, has its force only for explaining substitution reactions in which there is no change in radicals; it does not at all explain either addition reactions or those reactions in which changes occur in the radicals themselves. radicals, for example, when a radical changes atomicity or when it changes in composition"

He outlined his views in the well-known article "On the limit of organic compounds", published in 1861 in the "Journal of the Chemical Society".

The extensive and original course "Organic Chemistry" created by D.I. Mendeleev, awarded the Great Demidov Prize, was perhaps the first textbook of organic chemistry in Russian; moreover, two years later this textbook was published in the second edition.

Unlike Mendeleev, Butlerov’s scientific credo was primarily that theories are needed to generalize and explain the factual material, but facts, especially new facts, should not be forced or artificially squeezed into theoretical ideas, no matter how perfect these ideas may seem: “It is difficult to agree with the opinion ... that only research on the physical properties of complex substances can lead to an understanding of the mutual relations in which, in these substances, their constituent parts are located. But, at the same time, it must be admitted that the study of physical properties is of great importance in order to achieve the above goal.

According to the views of D.I. Mendeleev, all known hydrocarbons can be summed up “on the basis of their composition and reactions, under a strictly defined system.” The basis of systematization "is the ability of some of them to enter into very similar reactions and distinction ... in the ability to form compounds"

D. I. Mendeleev himself understood the shortcomings of the “typical way of representing the composition of bodies.” An attempt to arrange the radicals in a row consisting of many groups, in accordance with their reactivity, was not successful. “It is impossible to establish such a series for all reactions ... The same element in its different compounds sometimes presents very different reactions.”

Despite the fact that the theory of types was accepted by the majority of scientists, A. M. Butlerov considered it "insufficient". He proposed instead to be based on the ideas of valency and chemical structure, i.e. "chemical bonding or the method of interconnecting atoms in a complex body." The chemical properties of a complex substance, according to Butlerov, are determined by “the nature of the elementary constituents, their quantity and chemical structure”, from which it follows that it is possible to determine its chemical structure by the chemical properties of a substance and vice versa - by the structure to judge the properties of compounds. Knowing the structure, one can judge the mutual influence of atoms in molecules and the rearrangements that occur during chemical reactions.

If one adheres to the theory of types, then for the same substance one has to create several rational formulas that indicate the direction of chemical transformations of molecules. On the contrary, Butler's theory of structure indicates that for each individual compound there is only one structure formula that reflects all the properties of the substance.

On the basis of the theory of chemical structure, a fundamentally new systematics of organic compounds was created (“Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry”): “Chemical classification will be natural if the main basis for the convergence of some bodies and the separation of others is the analogy or difference in their chemical nature; and this nature is determined by the nature of the constituent parts, their quantity and the chemical structure of the particle.

When writing the “Introduction to the full course of organic chemistry”, A. M. Butlerov points out the inaccuracy and insufficient validity of the judgments of D. I. Mendeleev and, at the same time, the novelty of views on the development of chemistry in the first Russian textbook of organic chemistry written by him: “The only and excellent, Mendeleev's original Russian textbook on organic chemistry, a textbook that is undoubtedly not widespread in Western Europe, only because no translator has yet been found for it, places theoretical views not quite in the background: he introduces them, but can hardly lead to a clear understanding of the necessary connection that exists between theory and facts. Moreover, I dare to think that the theoretical concepts set forth here are not simply a repetition of what has already been said in the writings of other authors.

In the 70-80s of the nineteenth century. a heated debate broke out between supporters and opponents of the theory of the chemical structure of organic substances. This theory was opposed in Russia mainly by Butlerov's colleagues at St. Petersburg University, Mendeleev and Menshutkin. Both of them in the field of organic chemistry used the theory of types (the theory of substitution) for many years, opposing it to the theory of chemical structure. According to Mendeleev, too many hypotheses were associated with the theory of chemical structure, while the theory of types did not have this drawback. Especially sharply, Mendeleev formulated his attitude to the theory of chemical structure in the third edition of Fundamentals of Chemistry in 1872, stating that "the concepts of structuralists cannot be considered true ...".

Thus, D. I. Mendeleev did not support the theory created by Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov, since he based his experiments to a greater extent on the theory of substitution. But, having weighed all the pros and cons, he still did not categorically reject the theory of chemical structure. Subsequently, Mendeleev wrote that Butlerov “... seeks, by studying chemical transformations, to penetrate into the very depths of the bonds that hold heterogeneous elements together, gives each of them an innate ability to enter into a certain number of compounds, and attributes the difference in properties to a different way of connecting elements . No one pursued these thoughts as consistently as he did, although they were visible earlier ... To carry out the same way of looking through all classes of organic compounds, Butlerov published in 1864 the book "Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry", translated last year into German. Butlerov, with his readings and the fascination of ideas, formed around him in Kazan a school of chemists working in his direction. The names of Markovnikov, Myasnikov, Popov, the two Zaitsevs, Morgunov and some others managed to gain fame for many discoveries made mainly due to the independence of the Butlerov trend. I can personally testify that such French and German scientists as Wurtz and Kolbe consider Butlerov one of the most influential movers of the theoretical trend in chemistry in our time.

In April 1879, A. M. Butlerov spoke at the general meeting of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society with a report "The modern significance of the theory of chemical structure." In addition to a brilliant exposition of the foundations of the theory of chemical structure, Butlerov's speech contained a response to criticism of this theory, as well as critical remarks on the theory of types. As the strongest argument in favor of the theory of chemical structure, Butlerov put forward the fact that it justifies itself with extraordinary success in practice. After this speech by Butlerov, which made a deep impression on Russian chemists, the attacks on the theory of chemical structure ceased.

Butlerov did not consider his teaching to be absolute and unchanged, he said that his theory would be improved as practical knowledge was accumulated. Despite Mendeleev's disagreement with the theory of chemical structure, Butlerov still managed to maintain friendly relations with him and was able to fully appreciate the achievements of Dmitry Ivanovich.

In December 1879, D. I. Mendeleev proposed the chemical section of the Congress of Russian Naturalists and Doctors to create a Commission to reconcile the points of view of supporters and opponents of the theory of structure. In preparing the fourth edition of Fundamentals of Chemistry (1881), D. I. Mendeleev ruled out harsh attacks against the structuralists.

CONCLUSION

Among Russian scientists, the contribution of A. M. Butlerov and D. I. Mendeleev, two outstanding chemists, can undoubtedly be considered an invaluable contribution to the development of domestic and world organic chemistry. They managed to make many discoveries in the field of organic chemistry, their views diverged more than once. Very big contradictions between these two giants of scientific thought was caused by the question of the structure of organic compounds. The dispute between the two scientists led to the emergence of a modern theory of the structure of organic compounds, without which modern achievements in organic chemistry would not have been possible.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE

1. A. M. Butlerov. "Introduction to the complete study of organic chemistry" in 2 volumes. Volume 2. Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow, 1953.
2. D. I. Mendeleev. Collected works in 25 volumes, used volume 8, volume 13. Publishing house of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad-Moscow, 1948.
3. D. I. Mendeleev. "Fundamentals of Chemistry". Thirteenth State Scientific and Technical Publishing House of Chemical Literature. Moscow-Leningrad, 1947.
4. A. E. Arbuzov. Brief outline of the development of organic chemistry in Russia. - Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. - Moscow-Leningrad, 1957.

Attachment 1

Portrait of A. M. Butlerov

Annex 2

Cover of A. M. Butlerov's textbook

"Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry"

Annex 3

Portrait of D. I. Mendeleev

Appendix 4

Cover of the textbook by D. I. Mendeleev

"Organic chemistry"

Chemist, creator of the theory of chemical structure.

The mother died, the grandfather and grandmother took over the upbringing of the grandson. Butlerov spent his early years in the remote village of Podlesnaya Shantala. The father, although he lived on a nearby estate, practically did not take part in raising his son. Knowing the forest well, Butlerov early became addicted to hunting, he enjoyed catching butterflies, collecting a herbarium. The family archive has preserved an amazing document written by Butlerov himself when he was just twelve years old. "My Life" is a short story, which is preceded by an epigraph: “Our life passes and does not return, like waters flowing into the sea.”

“Our surname, as some say and think, is of English origin, and according to others, we come from the German nation: for one German, our namesake, found the same coat of arms as ours, which, among other things, represents a mug (it’s true, our ancestors were addicted to beer, like all the British and Germans).

But the point is not in the genealogical list of our surname, but in the description of my life, which I decided to describe briefly.

I lost my mother when I was only 11 days old and I couldn't feel my loss; at first, as usual, I only knew how to run and frolic, in which I had freedom, but with all the indulgence towards me, I was flogged twice, once with a garter, the other I don’t remember what, since I probably don’t remember the number of executions , which, however, I received only when I was small; and after that I never deserved it from my mentors.

The time came when they put me in jail for learning, and having learned the alphabet, I began to add ba, wa, and then sconce, vra, and finally began to read on top. After that, I had to start writing: and as soon as I learned to write in Russian large on the rulers, I was forced to study in French and German. I remember that people used to say to me: “If you study, then we will give you all the pleasures,” and it’s as if this has always been the case, they tell me the same today.

Maybe a year and a half passed after that, and I already knew a few phrases by heart and wrote pretty well, albeit large, in these languages, when suddenly they decided to take me to a boarding school in Kazan to study. This was already a completely thunderous blow for me: for at that time I did not yet understand my usefulness, but, despite this, I was taken to a boarding school; there at first I wept a lot, but then I got used to it, my tears stopped flowing, and I began to think more about learning and about how, through this, to bring comfort to papa and my relatives, than about returning home to the village. Here I live and to this time safely, having passed the exam twice, this terrible and at the same time cheerful era for boarders.

In 1844, after graduating from the gymnasium, Butlerov entered the natural category of the physics and mathematics department of the philosophical faculty of Kazan University. The blond, broad-shouldered student enjoyed studying chemistry, but still devoted all his free time to nature. Botany and entomology remained his passion. Once, while hunting in the Kyrgyz steppes, Butlerov fell ill with typhoid fever. Half-dead he was taken to Simbirsk, where his father could hardly get out. But the father himself fell ill and died. This event had a strong impact on the previously lively character of Butlerov. He grew gloomy, lost his former vivacity. But his studies have become more in-depth. The stubborn student was noticed by professors of Kazan University - K. K. Klaus (it was he who first isolated the chemical element ruthenium), and N. N. Zinin. With their help, Butlerov equipped a good home laboratory, in which he managed to obtain quite complex chemicals, such as caffeine, isatin or alloxanthin. Moreover, he even received benzidine and gallic acid in his home laboratory.

In 1849 Butlerov graduated from Kazan University.

At the suggestion of Professor Klaus, he was left at the university to prepare for a professorship. “The faculty is absolutely sure,” the relevant resolution said, “that Butlerov will honor the university with his knowledge and deserve fame in the scientific world, if circumstances favor his academic vocation.”

Oddly enough, Butlerov began his university activities by lecturing on physics and physical geography. However, he received the degree of candidate for his work on the butterflies of the Volga and the Urals. True, Butlerov soon began to lecture on inorganic chemistry - for students of natural sciences and mathematics.

Butlerov defended his master's thesis in February 1851. It was called "On the Oxidation of Organic Compounds" and, according to Butlerov himself, "... a collection of all hitherto known facts of the oxidation of organic bodies and the experience of their systematization." But already in this work, Butlerov prophetically stated: “...Looking back, one cannot help but wonder what a huge step organic chemistry has taken in the short time of its existence. Incomparably more, however, is ahead of her and there will finally be a time when, little by little, true, exact laws will be revealed and determined ... and bodies will take their natural places in the chemical system. Then the chemist, using certain known properties of a given body, knowing the general conditions of certain transformations, will predict in advance and without error the appearance of certain products and will determine in advance not only the composition, but also their properties.

In 1851, Butlerov was elected an adjunct in the Department of Chemistry, and the following year he completed the experimental work "On the Action of Osmic Acid on Organic Compounds."

In 1854, he defended his doctoral dissertation "On Essential Oils" at Moscow State University. Immediately after the defense, he went to St. Petersburg - to see his teacher N. N. Zinin, who by that time had moved to the capital. “... Short conversations with N. N. Zinin during this my stay in St. Petersburg,” Butlerov later wrote, “was enough for this time to become an era in my scientific development.”

In 1857, Butlerov received a position as an ordinary professor at Kazan University. The students treated the young professor with interest. The famous writer Boborykin, who studied with Butlerov, recalled:

“In the laboratory, during the whole course, we took a closer look at A. M. and agreed with him. After two or three months, the relationship became the simplest, but without the familiarity that began to start later. In A. M., an unusual tact was always felt, which did not allow either himself or his student to anything banal or too unceremonious ...

He did not drill his students at all, did not interfere in their work, gave them complete freedom, but answered every question with unfailing attentiveness and good nature. He liked to chat with us, talked about the ideas of his works, joked, shared his impressions of the fiction he had read. That winter, he went to Moscow to take an exam for a doctor of chemistry and often repeated to me: - Boborykin, if you want to quickly become a master, do not rush to get married. So I got married too early, and how many years I can’t stand the doctor ... ”.

In the same year, Butlerov went on his first business trip abroad.

He visited many laboratories and scientific centers in Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Switzerland and England and got to know the well-known scientists of that time - M. Bussengo, C. Bernard, A. Becquerel, E. Peligot, A. Saint-Clair-Deville, G. Rose, A. Balara. In Heidelberg, Butlerov met the young chemist Kekule, who came close to the topic of his main discovery.

“Butlerov,” wrote the chemist Markovnikov about this trip, “was one of the first young Russian scientists who took the opportunity to get to know science more closely at the place of its birth. But he went abroad already with such a stock of knowledge that he did not need to complete his studies, as most of those sent abroad later did. He needed to see how the masters of science work, trace the origin and enter into that intimate circle of ideas that scientists easily exchange in personal conversations, but very often keep them to themselves and do not make them the subject of publication. Under such conditions, it is natural that Butlerov could easily orient himself in everything new that appeared to his mental eyes. Love for his science and a correct, honest understanding of the matter that lay on him as a professor did not allow him to be distracted by other questions, and he completely devoted himself to studying the modern positions of chemistry and its immediate tasks. With a solid stock of scientific knowledge, and, moreover, completely fluent in French and German, it was not difficult for him to become on an equal footing with young European scientists and, thanks to his outstanding abilities, choose the right direction for himself.

Upon his return, Butlerov presented to the Council of Kazan University a detailed "Report on a trip to foreign lands in 1857-1858."

Written with a critical analysis of everything seen and heard, this report was a special kind of scientific work. For example, it is clearly seen from it that in Paris, in the laboratory of Professor A. Wurtz, Butlerov carefully studied the effect of sodium alcoholite on iodine and iodoform. This reaction was studied by chemists even before Butlerov, but he was the first, skillfully changing the reaction conditions, to obtain methylene iodide, a compound with a density of 3.32, which soon found wide practical application among mineralogists. As for methylene iodide, in the skilful hands of Butlerov it became the starting product for the synthesis of many organic compounds.

“The naturalness,” he wrote, “the necessity of theoretical conclusions arising from the actual development of science, also explains the fact that all the views that I met in Western Europe represented little new for me. Putting aside false modesty inappropriate here, I must note that these views and conclusions in recent years have already been more or less assimilated in the Kazan laboratory, which did not count on originality; they became in it a common walking property and were partly introduced into teaching. I can hardly be mistaken if I predict in the near future the confluence of controversial views and their liberation from the peculiar costumes in which they are still dressed and which often cover their inner content, their real meaning.

Having reorganized the chemical laboratory of Kazan University, Butlerov carried out a number of important experimental studies over the course of several years.

In 1859, for example, when methylene iodide was treated with silver acetate, he obtained methylene glycol acetic ester, and when the ether was saponified, instead of the expected methylene glycol, a formaldehyde polymer was obtained, which he gave the name dioxymethylene. This substance, which turned out to be a mixture of polymers, served for Butlerov as a product for other, even more brilliant synthesis experiments.

So, in 1860, when dioxymethylene was treated with ammonia, he obtained a complex nitrogen-containing compound, the so-called hexamethylenetetramine. The resulting substance called urotropin has found extensive use in medicine and in the chemical industry.

In 1861, Butlerov made a no less remarkable discovery: by the action of a lime solution on dioxymethylene, for the first time in the history of chemistry, he obtained a sugary substance by synthesis. With this, Butlerov, as it were, completed a series of classical studies of his contemporaries:

in 1826 Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, in 1828 - urea,

Kolbe synthesized acetic acid in 1848.

Berthelot in 1854 - fats, and

Butlerov in 1861 - a sugary substance.

These experiments helped Butlerov to formulate the ideas and assumptions on which he worked in those years into a coherent theory. Believing in the reality of atoms, he came to the firm conviction that scientists were finally able to express the structure of the molecules of the most complex organic compounds with concrete formulas.

On September 19, 1861, at the XXXVI meeting of German naturalists and doctors in the German city of Speyer, in the presence of prominent chemists, Butlerov read the famous report - "On the chemical structure of substances."

Butlerov's report began with the statement that the theoretical side of chemistry has not corresponded to its actual development for a long time, and the theory of types, accepted by the majority of scientists, is clearly insufficient to explain many chemical processes. He argued that the properties of substances depend not only on their qualitative and quantitative composition, but also on the spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules. "The chemical nature of a complex particle is determined by the nature of the elementary constituents, their quantity and chemical structure." Assessing the significance of the theories that existed at that time in chemistry, Butlerov confidently stated that any true scientific theory should follow from the facts that it is intended to explain.

Butlerov's report was received coldly by German chemists. Only Dr. Heinz and the young Privatdozent Erlenmeyer reacted to Butlerov's report with understanding. But this did not bother Butlerov at all. The closest result of his work was the synthesis of trimethylcarbinol, the first representative of the class of tertiary alcohols, followed by a series of experiments that made it possible to elucidate in detail the entire mechanism of the reaction for obtaining tertiary alcohols.

Based on the data obtained, Butlerov developed the theory of chemical structure developed by him, at the same time criticizing the mistakes made in the works of the well-known chemists Kekule, Kolbe, Erlenmeyer, who were close in approach. “With the opinion of Kekule,” he wrote, “that the position of atoms in space cannot be represented on the plane of paper, one can hardly agree. After all, the position of points in space is expressed by mathematical formulas, and one should, of course, hope that the laws that govern the formation and existence of chemical compounds will someday find their mathematical expression.

In 1867, while studying the properties and chemical reactions of trimethylcarbinol, Butlerov was the first to obtain trimethylcarbinol iodhydrin, and during the reduction of the latter, an unknown hydrocarbon, which he called isobutane. This hydrocarbon differed sharply from the hydrocarbon of the same composition previously known to chemists, the so-called diethyl (normal butane): while normal butane had a boiling point of plus one degree, isobutane already boiled at a temperature of minus seventeen.

The experimental preparation of compounds predicted on the basis of the theory of chemical structure developed by Butlerov was of decisive importance for its approval.

In 1867, having completed work on the textbook Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry, Butlerov went abroad for the third and last time. The need for such a trip is ripe: some foreign chemists, who had not previously recognized Butlerov's theory, now began to attribute some of his discoveries to themselves. And some even reduced his role to the fact that Butlerov allegedly simply gave a new name to a theory already developed by others.

“Of course, it is not my intention to prove my claims with citations,” Butlerov wrote in response to the accusations of the chemist L. Mayer, a friend of Kekule, who claimed the priority of Butlerov’s ideas, “however, if we compare (in chronological order) my works published since 1861, with the work of other chemists, it will be necessary to admit that these claims are not unfounded. I even allow myself to think that it will be much easier for me to prove their validity than to defend my point of view for someone who, like Mr. L. Meyer, would like to assert that my participation in the implementation of a new principle is limited to giving it the name of the principle of "chemical structure “and using a well-known way of writing formulas…”

“Kekule,” Markovnikov supported Butlerov, “and in particular Cooper, really gave the first explanation of the atomic nature of carbon and its accumulation in complex particles. But this is still far from a theory that embraces not only carbonaceous substances, but all chemical compounds in general, and we have indeed already seen that Kekule himself initially attached only secondary importance to his considerations. Butlerov's merit lies in the fact that he understood the true meaning of this hypothesis and developed it into a coherent system.

“What Butlerov introduced here,” the Finnish chemist E. Gjelt pointed out even more clearly in his capital History of Organic Chemistry, “is not just a new term. The concept of chemical structure basically coincides with Kekule's concept of the adhesion of atoms and is consistent with Cooper's views on this issue. The foundations of this concept were given by these two researchers, however, its true content and boundaries were not clearly expressed, and it is possible that, precisely because of this, it was misunderstood. Thanks to Butlerov, it became clear that the chemical structure, on the one hand, is something completely different, that is, it is not only an expression of the relationship of analogies and transformation. On the other hand, the structure does not say anything about the mechanical arrangement of atoms in the molecule, i.e., it is not what Gerard, and also Kekule (at the beginning), understood by the “structure of the molecule”, namely, the “true arrangement of their atoms”. On the contrary, it means only the existing, but for each substance, a certain chemical bond of atoms in a molecule.

Despite this support, Butlerov returned to Russia disappointed.

“For us strangers,” he wrote bitterly, “one feature of the German congresses is especially striking, a feature so strange that I cannot keep silent about it; it is the desire to express one's nationality at every opportunity. And there is no doubt that this hypertrophy of national feeling does no little harm to the Germans: it makes them insufficiently recognize every foreign nationality.

In May 1868, Butlerov was elected an ordinary professor at St. Petersburg University. In this regard, he moved to the capital. In a presentation written by D. I. Mendeleev, it was said:

"BUT. M. Butlerov is one of the most remarkable Russian scientists.

He is Russian both in terms of his scientific education and the originality of his works.

A student of our famous Academician N. Zinin, he became a chemist not in foreign lands, but in Kazan, where he continues to develop an independent chemical school. The direction of the scientific works of A. M. does not constitute a continuation or development of the ideas of his predecessors, but belongs to him. In chemistry there is Butlerovskaya school, Butlerovskoye direction. I could count up to 30 new bodies discovered by Butlerov, but it was not this side of his work that brought him the greatest fame. With Butlerov, all discoveries expired and were guided by one common idea. It was she who created the school, it is she who allows us to assert that his name will forever remain in science. This is the idea of ​​the so-called chemical structure. In the 1850s, the revolutionary chemistry Gerard overthrew all the old idols, moved chemistry onto a new road, however, soon, with the wealth of new information, it was necessary to go further than Gerard. Several separate directions have revived here. And between them, a place of honor belongs to the direction of Butlerov. He again seeks, by studying chemical transformations, to penetrate into the very depths of the bonds that fasten heterogeneous elements into a single whole, gives each of them an innate ability to enter into a known number of compounds, and attributes the difference in properties to a different way of connecting elements. No one carried these thoughts as consistently as he did, although they had been visible before. Butlerov, with his readings and the fascination of ideas, formed around him in Kazan a school of chemists working in his direction. The names of Markovnikov, Myasnikov, Popov, the two Zaitsevs, Morgunov and some others managed to gain fame for many discoveries made mainly due to the independence of the Butlerov trend. I can personally testify that such French and German scientists as Wurtz and Kolbe consider Butlerov one of the most influential movers of the theoretical trend in chemistry in our time.

In 1870, Butlerov was elected an adjunct of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, a year later - an extraordinary, and in 1874 - an ordinary academician.

In the works of the St. Petersburg period, Butlerov paid much attention to the study of methods for the formation and transformation of unsaturated hydrocarbons. It was of great industrial importance. Now, for example, the hydration of ethylene in the presence of sulfuric acid produces huge amounts of ethyl alcohol, and as a result of the compaction reaction of propylene at ordinary temperature, but at elevated pressure and in the presence of boron fluoride, various products with the properties of lubricating oils are obtained. Butlerov's work formed the basis for the production of synthetic rubber, as well as the industry of high-octane fuels.

Butlerov's merits in chemistry were duly appreciated.

He was elected a full and honorary member of the Kazan, Kyiv and Moscow universities, the Military Medical Academy and many other Russian and foreign scientific societies.

Butlerov devoted the last years of his scientific activity to proving the advantages of the theory he developed over the rapidly aging theory of substitution. This activity required a lot of strength from him, because even two such significant Russian chemists as Mendeleev and Menshutkin recognized the validity of most of his constructions only after Butlerov's death.

Butlerov brilliantly predicted many stages in the development of chemical science. For example, in the article “Basic Concepts of Chemistry,” he wrote back in 1886:

“I pose the question: would not Prout's conjecture, under certain conditions, be quite true?

To raise such a question is to decide to deny the absolute constancy of atomic weights, and I really think that there is no reason to accept such constancy. Atomic weight will be for the chemist, in the main, nothing more than an expression of that weight of matter which is the carrier of a certain amount of chemical energy. But we know well that with other types of energy, its amount is not determined by the mass of the substance at all: the mass can remain unchanged, but the amount of energy nevertheless changes, for example, due to a change in speed.

Why can't similar changes exist for chemical energy, at least within certain limits?

With his general materialistic views on nature, Butlerov in some respects adhered to some, undoubtedly, excessive views. For example, he sincerely believed in spiritualism, he even tried to bring a theoretical basis for it. Being a religious man, Butlerov was inclined to believe that it was spiritualism that provided some subtle opportunity to establish contact between living people and the souls of the dead. He even suggested that the mediumistic phenomena observed by spiritualists are just such attempts to establish contacts from the “other side”. Of course, the official church attributed Butlerov's unusual hypothesis to the category of direct heresy, and a special scientific commission of twelve people, both supporters and opponents of spiritualism, created in 1875 at the initiative of Mendeleev at the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, published in the popular newspaper "Voice" review, ending with the conclusion that "... spiritualistic phenomena come from unconscious movements or from conscious deception, and spiritualistic teaching is superstition."

Nevertheless, Butlerov until his death published numerous articles in Russian and foreign journals in defense of spiritualism. I wonder what shadows of what great predecessors he tried to evoke at mediumistic seances, what questions did he ask them? The ancient alchemists, for example, were seldom prepared to face the inexplicable they so stubbornly pursued. A story is known when one such alchemist, discouraged by the unexpected appearance of the devil, asked him: “What, in fact, did Aristotle want to say with his entelechy?” In response, the devil laughed and disappeared.

Butlerov always loved wildlife.

Towards the end of his life, he reached out to the land, to simple labor, tried to accustom his peasants to agricultural machinery, which he specially bought for them. In his large estate, located in the Spassky district of the Kazan province, he organized a large apiary. He could sit for hours near a beehive with a glass wall, made according to his special drawing. The result of long observations was the work “Bee, its life and the main rules of sensible beekeeping. A Brief Guide for Bees, Mainly for Peasants", and Butlerov's pamphlet "How to Lead the Bees", published by him in 1885, went through twelve editions.

Sections: Chemistry, Extracurricular work

Goals:

• Compare the life and work of two great Russian scientists and find common ground in fate, scientific theories, significance for science
• Feel pride in our Russian land, who gave the world these great people.
• Development of research skills, creative abilities.

A.M. Butlerov - one of the greatest Russian scientists, he is Russian both in terms of his scientific education and the originality of his works.

(D.I. Mendeleev)

“... I love my country like a mother, and my science - like a spirit that blesses, illuminates and unites all peoples for the good and peaceful development of spiritual and material wealth.”

(D.I. Mendeleev)

When studying this section, the students and I chose the form of protection of educational projects.

Defense of the educational project includes writing an abstract and its presentation to other participants.

The preparation of the conference included several stages:

1. Choice of the topic of the educational project.
2. Abstract writing.
3. Project protection.

Abstract topics:

• Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev is a brilliant Russian chemist.
• Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov is the greatest Russian scientist.

Literature:

1. Grosse E. Chemistry for the curious. 1987
2. Tishchenko V.E., Mladentsev M.N. Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, his life and work (University period) 1861-1890 M. 1993
3. Dmitriev I.S. “Special Mission of Mendeleev – Arguments and Facts, St. Petersburg University” 1996
4. Starikov V.I. "DI. Mendeleev” 1984 Sverdlovsk.
5. Makarenya A.A. "Mendeleev in Petersburg" Lenizdat. 1982

At the first stage of preparation, students are given an approximate list of topics for work:

• Years of life. Place of Birth. Family. Enthusiasm.
• Personal qualities.
• Team work
• Prerequisites.
• Discovery history.
• scientific theories
• Triumph.
• The main directions of development of the two theories.
• Philosophical laws of development.
• Meaning

P stage - the stage of independent work of students with a textbook and additional literature.

III stage - the exchange of information, students write the main content in a notebook.

Years of life. Place of birth Family. Hobbies.

Butlerov Alexander Mikhailovich 1828-1886

Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich 1834-1907

Presentations of students in the theses:

Butlerov A.M. - was born on September 15, 1828 in the city of Chistonol, Kazan province. Butlerov's father, Mikhail Vasilyevich, a participant in the Patriotic War of 1812, after his resignation with the rank of lieutenant colonel, lived in his native village of Butlerovka; mother Sofya Alexandrovna, died at the age of 19, a few days after the birth of her son. Raised by his father, an educated man, Sasha wanted to be like him in everything.

Butlerov studied at a private boarding school, then at the first Kazan gymnasium. At the age of 10, he was fluent in French and German, was engaged in chemical experiments (one of them ended in an explosion, and the teachers of the boarding school sent the offender to the punishment cell, hanging a plaque on his chest with the inscription “great chemist”, collected collections of plants and insects.

In 1846, Alexander fell ill with typhus and miraculously survived, but his father, who had contracted it, died. Butlerov was 18 years old, he studied at the natural department of Kazan University.

Mendeleev D.I. - was born in Siberia, in the city of Tobolsk. On February 8, 1834, the seventeenth and last child in the family of Ivan Pavlovich Mindeleev, director of the Tobolsk gymnasium. In the same year, Father D.I. Mindeleev is blind. When Dmitry was 13 years old, his father died and all cares about the family passed to his mother, Maria Dmitrievna, a woman of outstanding mind and energy. She managed to simultaneously run a small glass factory and take care of the children, whom she gave an excellent education for that time. She died in 1850. Mendeleev retained a grateful memory of her until the end of his days.

Studied D.I. Mendeleev at the Main Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg from outstanding teachers who knew how to arouse a deep interest in science. These were the best scientific forces of that time, academicians and professors of St. Petersburg University, such as mathematician M.V. Ostrogradsky, physicist E.Kh. Lenz, chemist A.A. Resurrection.

At the age of 23, D.I. Mendeleev defended his thesis for a master's degree and became an assistant professor at St. Petersburg University, where he read first inorganic and then organic chemistry.

In 1865 he defended his dissertation “On the combination of alcohol with water” for the degree of Doctor of Chemistry and two years later became the head of the Department of Inorganic (General) Chemistry.

Personal qualities.

A.M. Butlerov

According to contemporaries, Butlerov was one of the best lecturers of his time: he completely dominated the audience thanks to the clarity and rigor of presentation, which he combined with the imagery of the language.

The ability to relax - both in his student and adult years helped Alexander Mikhailovich to work selflessly.

Sociable and friendly, ready for a joke and an argument, modest and hardworking - this is how Butlerov was remembered by numerous friends, colleagues and students.

D.I. Mendeleev

DI. Mendeleev possessed surprisingly clear chemical thinking, he always clearly understood the ultimate goals of his creative work: foresight and benefit.

He was a powerful man, because only a giant could do what he did, thanks to the strength of his spirit, the confidence that his work was necessary.

DI. Mendeleev is a true patriot. This is a man who loves his homeland, the country where he was born. With his work, with his whole life, he contributed to the good and prosperity of his homeland. Dmitry Ivanovich is a classic example of a Russian patriot.

Both scientists were distinguished from other chemists by:

• Encyclopedic nature of chemical knowledge;
• Ability to analyze and summarize facts;
• Scientific forecasting;
• Russian mentality and Russian patriotism.

Team work.

In the spring of 1868, at the initiative of the famous chemist Mendeleev, Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov was invited to St. Petersburg University, where he began to lecture and got the opportunity to organize a private chemical laboratory. Butlerov developed a new methodology for teaching students, offering the now universally accepted laboratory practice.

Information about the joint teaching work of Butlerov and Mendeleev at the Department of Chemistry of St. Petersburg University has been preserved:

Repeatedly D.I. Mendeleev and A.M. Butlerov took exams in chemistry together.

Participated in the work of the dissertation defense council.

In their relationship there was both mutual support and the practice of delusions.

In 1861, Butlerov sets out his theory of the structure of organic compounds, and, a curious coincidence

In the same year, Mendeleev published two papers entirely devoted to organic chemistry. His textbook "Organic Chemistry" is published, two years later the second edition appears. For his work D.I. Mendeleev was awarded the Demidov Prize, the highest scientific award in Russia at that time.

Prerequisites of the periodic law:

By the time the Periodic Law was discovered, 63 elements were known and the properties of their numerous compounds were described.

The works of scientists - the predecessors of D.I. Mendeleev: Berzelius classification, Debereiner triads, Shancourtua spiral, Newlands octaves, Meyer table.

Congress of chemists in Karlsruhe, when the atomic-molecular doctrine was finally established.

Prerequisites for the theory of chemical structure:

Hundreds of thousands of organic compounds are known, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, less often nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.

The works of the predecessors of A.M. Butlerov: introduction of the term radical and the theory of radicals; type theory; introduction of the term “isometry”; Frankland and Kekule approved the concept of the valence of elements; Kekule developed the concept of the four-valency of carbon; Cannicaro refined the atomic and molecular weights.

Both recognized the merits of Berzelius as the developer of the fundamental principles of classification.

The history of the discovery of the Periodic Law and the theory of structure.

DI. Mendeleev and A.M. Butlerov summarized the accumulated factual material and supplemented it, put it in the basis of their works.

However, D.I. Mendeleev arranged the elements in a row in order of increasing atomic weight.

The main feature of the table D.I. Mendeleev is that chemically similar elements are placed in vertical rows: lithium and sodium, beryllium and magnesium, fluorine and chlorine, oxygen and sulfur. With this arrangement, the periodicity of the properties of chemical elements was clearly manifested. Thus was made the greatest discovery of the era.

Scientific theories:

Theory of periodicity.

Periodic law and periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev.

Theory of the structure.

Theory of the structure of organic compounds A.M. Butlerov.

Both leading theories of modern chemistry were created by great Russian scientists and constitute the contribution of Russian chemistry to world chemical science. Both theories have stood the test of time and have stood it brilliantly, developing and enriching themselves with modern discoveries in chemistry.

DI. Mendeleev predicts, describes and indicates the ways of discovering gallium, scandium and germanium, still unknown to science, calling them ekabor, ekaaluminum, ekasilicon.

Less than six years later, D.I. Mendeleev were confirmed. Life continued to test Mendeleev's law for strength.

Finally, it's time for triumph. Gallium was discovered in 1875, scandium in 1879, and germanium in 1886. The existence in nature of more than 10 elements was predicted by D.I. Mendeleev.

The triumph of Butlerov's theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds was the correct explanation based on this theory of the phenomena of isometry.

In 1864-1866, Butlerov's book "Introduction to the Complete Study of Organic Chemistry" was published in three editions. This inspired work was the revelation of Butlerov, an experimental chemist and philosopher who rebuilt all the material accumulated by science according to the principle of chemical structure.

Butlerov's book caused a real revolution in chemical science. It has become a guiding light in the vast majority of research in organic chemistry. Editions were published in almost all European languages.

The main directions of development of the two theories:

The development of both theories takes place according to philosophical laws (in a spiral): the wording of the provisions is corrected in connection with the latest scientific discoveries, but their essence remains the same.

Philosophical laws of development:

The properties of chemical elements depend on:

Their relative masses

The charges of their atomic nuclei;

Periodicity in changing the outer electronic layers of atoms;

The properties of organic substances depend on:

Their chemical structure

Their spatial structure

Their electronic structure.

Meaning:

The periodic law turned out to be a powerful scientific research tool, because. all further searches for elements were carried out with the help of this law.

The periodic law is a universal law of nature, because All physical and chemical properties of matter are determined by the structure of atoms.

Created by D.I. Mendeleev on the basis of the periodic law, the periodic system of chemical elements plays the role of a guiding star in the development of chemistry, physics and all natural science.

The subsequent development of atomic physics, the discovery of the structure of atoms made it possible to reveal the causes of periodicity in the properties of chemical elements, discovered by D.I. Mendeleev.

The creation of a theory of the chemical structure of organic substances played an important role in the development of organic chemistry. From a descriptive science, it turns into a creative, synthesizing science; it became possible to judge the mutual influence of atoms in the molecules of various substances.

The theory of chemical structure has created the prerequisites for explaining and predicting various types of isomerism of organic molecules, as well as the directions and mechanisms of chemical reactions.

Based on this theory, chemists create substances that replace natural ones, and sometimes even surpass them in properties (rubbers, plastics, dyes).

Both theories have so much in common in the ways of their formation, directions of development, common in the prognostic role, general scientific significance.

Testament of D.I. Mendeleev.

“The future does not threaten the periodic law with destruction, but only development and superstructures are promised.”

Testament of A.M. Butlerov.

“... when we know more closely the nature of chemical energy, the very kind of atomic motion - when the laws of mechanics receive application here too, then the doctrine of chemical structure will fall, ... to enter in a low form into the circle of new, broader views.”

“Mendeleev and Butlerov! These are two titans who hold on their shoulders the eastern portal of the world's international building of chemistry,” academician A.E. Arbuzov at the Mendeleev Congress held in Kazan in 1928.

So all questions of the plan are considered. The student's notebooks contain the most important information on this topic.

They heard a lot of additional information.

Conducting a scientific and practical conference dedicated to the study of the life and work of outstanding Russian scientists Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov instills in students a sense of pride in their country and develops interest in the subject being studied.

Mendeleev D. I. Knowledge of Russia. Cherished thoughts M., "Eksmo", 2008.

S. F. GLINKA

Glinka S. F. Personal memories of Mendeleev.
Why D. I. Mendeleev was not elected to the Academy of Sciences.
"Journal of Chemical Industry", 1925, No 1 (7), p. 25--27.

NOTES