Dependence of the color of a nanoparticle on its size. Band Structure Dependence on Nanoparticle Size

Course Curriculum

newspaper number	Educational material
17	Lecture number 1. What is hidden behind the prefix "nano"? Nanoscience and nanochemistry. size effect. Classification of nanoobjects.(Eremin V.V., Drozdov A.A.)
18	Lecture number 2. Methods for the synthesis and study of nanoparticles. Classification of methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles. Chemical methods of synthesis ("bottom up"). Methods of visualization and research of nanoparticles.(Eremin V.V., Drozdov A.A.)
19	Lecture number 3. Nanotechnology. Fundamental and applied research: connection between nanoscience and nanotechnology. Mechanical nanodevices. Magnetic nanomaterials. Nanotechnologies in medicine. Development of nanotechnologies.(Eremin V.V., Drozdov A.A.) Test No. 1(Deadline - November 25, 2009)
20	Lecture number 4. Carbon nanomaterials. Allotropic forms of carbon are "nano" and not "nano". Nanodiamonds. Fullerenes and their derivatives. Nanotubes, their classification and properties. General properties of carbon nanoforms.(Eremin V.V.)
21	Lecture number 5. Nanomaterials for energy. Traditional and alternative energy sources. Nanomaterials in fuel cells. Nanomaterials for hydrogen storage.(Eremin V.V.)
22	Lecture number 6. Nanocatalysis. General properties of catalysts. Classification of catalytic reactions. Principles of structural and energy correspondence. Catalysis on nanoparticles and zeolites.(Eremin V.V.) Test No. 2(deadline - until December 30, 2009)
23	Lecture number 7. Nanochemistry in Olympiad problems. 1. Simple tasks. Methods for obtaining nanoparticles. Structure of nanoparticles. Properties of nanoparticles.(Eremin V.V.)
24	Lecture number 8. Nanochemistry in Olympiad problems. 2. Complex combined problems. (Eremin V.V.)
Final work. A brief report on the final work, accompanied by a certificate from the educational institution, must be sent to the Pedagogical University no later than February 28, 2010. (More details about the final work will be published after Lecture No. 8.)

V.V. EREMIN,
A.A. DROZDOV

LECTURE #1
What is hidden behind the prefix "nano"?

Nanoscience and nanochemistry

In recent years, in newspaper headlines and in magazine articles, we have increasingly come across words that begin with the prefix "nano". On radio and television, we are almost daily informed about the prospects for the development of nanotechnology and the first results obtained. What does the word "nano" mean? It comes from the Latin word nanus- "dwarf" and literally indicates a small particle size. In the prefix "nano" scientists put a more precise meaning, namely one billionth part. For example, one nanometer is one billionth of a meter, or 0.000,000,001 m (10–9 m).

Why did nanoscale attract the attention of scientists? Let's do a thought experiment. Imagine a cube of gold with an edge of 1 m. It weighs 19.3 tons and contains a huge number of atoms. Let's divide this cube into eight equal parts. Each of them is a cube with an edge half the size of the original one. The total surface has doubled. However, the properties of the metal itself do not change in this case (Fig. 1). We will continue this process further. As soon as the length of the edge of the cube approaches the size of large molecules, the properties of the substance will become completely different. We have reached the nano level, i.e. obtained cubic gold nanoparticles. They have a huge overall surface area, which leads to many unusual properties and makes them look nothing like ordinary gold. For example, gold nanoparticles can be evenly distributed in water, forming a colloidal solution - a sol. Depending on the particle size, the gold sol may have an orange, purple, red, or even green color (Fig. 2).

The history of the preparation of gold sols by reduction from its chemical compounds is rooted in the distant past. It is possible that they were the “elixir of life” mentioned by the ancients and obtained from gold. The famous physician Paracelsus, who lived in the 16th century, mentions the preparation of "soluble gold" and its use in medicine. Scientific research on colloidal gold began only in the 19th century. Interestingly, some of the solutions prepared at that time are still preserved. In 1857, the English physicist M. Faraday proved that the bright color of the solution is due to small particles of gold in suspension. Currently, colloidal gold is obtained from chloroauric acid by reduction with sodium borohydride in toluene with a surfactant added to it, which increases the stability of the sol (see lecture No. 7, task 1).

Note that such an approach to obtaining nanoparticles from individual atoms, i.e. from bottom to top in size, often called ascending (eng. - bottom up). It is characteristic of chemical methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles. In the thought experiment we described on dividing a gold bar, we took the opposite approach - top-down ( top-down), which is based on the fragmentation of particles, as a rule, by physical methods (Fig. 3).

We can meet with gold nanoparticles not only in a chemical laboratory, but also in a museum. The introduction of a small amount of gold compounds into molten glass leads to their decomposition with the formation of nanoparticles. It is they who give the glass that bright red color, for which it is called the "golden ruby".

With materials containing nano-objects, mankind got acquainted many centuries ago. In Syria (in its capital Damascus and other cities) in the Middle Ages they learned how to make strong, sharp and sonorous blades and sabers. The secret of making Damascus steel for many years was passed on by masters to each other in deep secrecy. Weapons steel, not inferior in properties to Damascus, was also prepared in other countries - in India, Japan. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of such steels did not allow scientists to explain the unique properties of these materials. As in ordinary steel, they contain, along with iron, carbon in an amount of about 1.5% by weight. In the composition of Damascus steel, metal impurities were also found, for example, manganese, which accompanies iron in some ores, and cementite, iron carbide Fe 3 C, formed during the interaction of iron with coal in the process of its recovery from ore. However, having prepared steel of exactly the same quantitative composition as Damascus, scientists could not achieve the properties that are inherent in the original.

When analyzing a material, it is necessary first of all to pay attention to its structure! Having dissolved a piece of Damascus steel in hydrochloric acid, German scientists discovered that the carbon contained in it forms not ordinary flat graphite flakes, but carbon nanotubes. This is the name of the particles obtained by twisting one or more layers of graphite into a cylinder. There are cavities inside the nanotubes, which in Damascus steel were filled with cementite. The thinnest threads of this substance bind individual nanotubes to each other, giving the material extraordinary strength, viscosity and elasticity. Now they have learned how to produce carbon nanotubes in large quantities, but how the medieval “technologists” managed to get them is still a mystery. Scientists suggest that the formation of nanotubes from coal, which fell into steel from a burning tree, was facilitated by some impurities and a special temperature regime with repeated heating and cooling of the product. This was precisely the secret that was lost over the years, which artisans owned.

As we can see, the properties of a nanosubstance and a nanomaterial differ significantly from the properties of objects with the same qualitative and quantitative composition, but not containing nanoparticles.

In the Middle Ages, the creation of substances that we today call nanomaterials was approached empirically, i.e. through many years of experience, many of which ended in failure. Artisans did not think about the meaning of the actions they performed, did not even have an elementary idea about the structure of these substances and materials. At present, the creation of nanomaterials has become the object of scientific activity. The scientific language has already established the term "nanoscience" (Eng. nanoscience), which denotes the area of study of nanometer-sized particles. Since from the point of view of the phonetics of the Russian language this name is not very successful, you can use another, also generally accepted - "nanoscale science" (eng. - nanoscale science).

Nanoscience is developing at the intersection of chemistry, physics, materials science and computer technology. It has many applications. The use of nanomaterials in electronics is expected to increase the capacity of storage devices by a factor of a thousand, and hence reduce their size. It has been proven that the introduction of gold nanoparticles into the body in combination with X-ray irradiation inhibits the growth of cancer cells. Interestingly, gold nanoparticles themselves do not have a healing effect. Their role is reduced to the absorption of X-rays and directing it to the tumor.

Doctors are also waiting for the completion of clinical trials of biosensors for diagnosing oncological diseases. Nanoparticles are already being used to deliver drugs to body tissues and increase the efficiency of absorption of sparingly soluble drugs. The application of silver nanoparticles to packaging films can extend the shelf life of products. Nanoparticles are used in new types of solar cells and fuel cells - devices that convert the energy of fuel combustion into electrical energy. In the future, their use will make it possible to abandon the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels at thermal power plants and in internal combustion engines of vehicles - and in fact they make the greatest contribution to the deterioration of the environmental situation on our planet. So nanoparticles serve the task of creating environmentally friendly materials and ways of energy production.

The tasks of nanoscience are reduced to the study of mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties of nanoobjects - substances and materials. Nanochemistry as one of the components of nanoscience, it is engaged in the development of synthesis methods and the study of the chemical properties of nanoobjects. It is closely related to materials science, since nanoobjects are part of many materials. Medical applications of nanochemistry are very important, including the synthesis of substances related to natural proteins, or nanocapsules that serve to carry drugs.

Achievements in nanoscience serve as the basis for the development nanotechnology– technological processes of production and application of nano-objects. Nanotechnologies have little in common with those examples of chemical industries that are considered in the school chemistry course. This is not surprising - after all, nanotechnologists have to manipulate objects with a size of 1–100 nm, i.e. having the size of individual large molecules.

There is a strict definition of nanotechnology*: this is a set of methods and techniques used in the study, design, production and use of structures, devices and systems, including targeted control and modification of the shape, size, integration and interaction of their constituent nanoscale elements (1–100 nm) to obtain objects with new chemical physical and biological properties. The key in this definition is the last part, which emphasizes that the main task of nanotechnology is to obtain objects with new properties.

Dimensional effect

Nanoparticles are usually called objects consisting of atoms, ions or molecules and having a size of less than 100 nm. Metal particles are an example. We have already talked about gold nanoparticles. And in black and white photography, when light hits the film, silver bromide decomposes. It leads to the appearance of particles of metallic silver, consisting of several tens or hundreds of atoms. Since ancient times, it has been known that water in contact with silver can kill pathogenic bacteria. The healing power of such water is explained by the content of the smallest particles of silver in it, these are nanoparticles! Due to their small size, these particles differ in properties both from individual atoms and from a bulk material consisting of many billions of billions of atoms, such as a silver ingot.

It is known that many physical properties of a substance, such as its color, thermal and electrical conductivity, and melting point, depend on the particle size. For example, the melting temperature of gold nanoparticles 5 nm in size is 250° lower than that of ordinary gold (Fig. 4). As the size of the gold nanoparticles increases, the melting temperature increases and reaches a value of 1337 K, which is typical for a conventional material (which is also called the bulk phase or macrophase).

Glass acquires color if it contains particles whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of visible light, i.e. are nanosized. This explains the bright color of medieval stained-glass windows, which contain various sizes of metal nanoparticles or their oxides. And the electrical conductivity of a material is determined by the mean free path - the distance that an electron travels between two collisions with atoms. It is also measured in nanometers. If the size of a metal nanoparticle turns out to be less than this distance, then one should expect the appearance of special electrical properties in the material, which are not characteristic of an ordinary metal.

Thus, nanoobjects are characterized not only by their small size, but also by the special properties that they exhibit, acting as an integral part of the material. For example, the color of “golden ruby” glass or a colloidal solution of gold is caused not by one gold nanoparticle, but by their ensemble, i.e. a large number of particles located at a certain distance from each other.

Individual nanoparticles containing no more than 1000 atoms are called nanoclusters. The properties of such particles differ significantly from the properties of a crystal, which contains a huge number of atoms. This is due to the special role of the surface. Indeed, reactions involving solids do not occur in the volume, but on the surface. An example is the interaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid. If you look closely, you can see that hydrogen bubbles form on the surface of zinc, and the atoms located in the depth do not participate in the reaction. Atoms lying on the surface have more energy, because. they have fewer neighbors in the crystal lattice. A gradual decrease in particle size leads to an increase in the total surface area, an increase in the fraction of atoms on the surface (Fig. 5), and an increase in the role of surface energy. It is especially high in nanoclusters, where most of the atoms are on the surface. Therefore, it is not surprising that, for example, nanogold is many times more chemically active than ordinary gold. For example, gold nanoparticles containing 55 atoms (diameter 1.4 nm) deposited on the surface of TiO 2 serve as good catalysts for the selective oxidation of styrene with atmospheric oxygen to benzaldehyde ( Nature, 2008):

C 6 H 5 -CH \u003d CH 2 + O 2 -> C 6 H 5 -CH \u003d O + H 2 O,

while particles with a diameter of more than 2 nm, and even more so ordinary gold, do not show catalytic activity at all.

Aluminum is stable in air, and aluminum nanoparticles are instantly oxidized by atmospheric oxygen, turning into oxide Al 2 O 3 . Studies have shown that aluminum nanoparticles with a diameter of 80 nm in air are overgrown with an oxide layer with a thickness of 3 to 5 nm. Another example: it is well known that ordinary silver is insoluble in dilute acids (except nitric). However, very small silver nanoparticles (no more than 5 atoms) will dissolve with the release of hydrogen even in weak acids such as acetic acid, for this it is enough to create the acidity of the solution pH = 5 (see lecture No. 8, task 4).

The dependence of the physical and chemical properties of nanoparticles on their size is called size effect. This is one of the most important effects in nanochemistry. He has already found a theoretical explanation from the standpoint of classical science, namely, chemical thermodynamics. Thus, the dependence of the melting point on the size is explained by the fact that the atoms inside the nanoparticles experience additional surface pressure, which changes their Gibbs energy (see lecture No. 8, task 5). Analyzing the dependence of the Gibbs energy on pressure and temperature, one can easily derive an equation relating the melting temperature and the radius of nanoparticles – it is called the Gibbs–Thomson equation:

where T pl ( r) is the melting temperature of a nanoobject with a radius of nanoparticles r, T pl () - melting point of ordinary metal (bulk phase), solid-l - surface tension between the liquid and solid phases, H pl is the specific heat of fusion, tv is the density of the solid.

Using this equation, it is possible to estimate from what size the properties of the nanophase begin to differ from the properties of a conventional material. As a criterion, we take the difference in the melting point of 1% (for gold, this is about 14 ° C). In the "Brief Chemical Reference" (authors - V.A. Rabinovich, Z.Ya. Khavin) we find for gold: H pl \u003d 12.55 kJ / mol \u003d 63.71 J / g, tv \u003d 19.3 g / cm 3. In the scientific literature for surface tension, the value of solid-l \u003d 0.55 N / m \u003d 5.5–10 -5 J / cm 2 is given. Let's solve the inequality with these data:

This estimate, although rather rough, correlates well with the value of 100 nm, which is usually used when talking about the limiting sizes of nanoparticles. Of course, here we did not take into account the dependence of the heat of fusion on temperature and surface tension on particle size, and the latter effect can be quite significant, as evidenced by the results of scientific research.

Many other examples of the size effect with calculations and qualitative explanations will be given in lectures #7 and #8.

Classification of nanoobjects

There are many different ways to classify nanoobjects. According to the simplest of them, all nanoobjects are divided into two large classes - solid (“external”) and porous (“internal”) (scheme).

Scheme

Classification of nanoobjects
(from a lecture by Prof. B.V. Romanovsky)

Solid objects are classified by dimension: 1) three-dimensional (3D) structures, they are called nanoclusters ( cluster- accumulation, bunch); 2) flat two-dimensional (2D) objects - nanofilms; 3) linear one-dimensional (1D) structures - nanowires, or nanowires (nanowires); 4) zero-dimensional (0D) objects - nanodots, or quantum dots. Porous structures include nanotubes (see lecture 4) and nanoporous materials, such as amorphous silicates (see lecture No. 8, task 2).

Of course, this classification, like any other, is not exhaustive. It does not cover a rather important class of nanoparticles - molecular aggregates obtained by methods of supramolecular chemistry. We will look at it in the next lecture.

Some of the most actively studied structures are nanoclusters- consist of metal atoms or relatively simple molecules. Since the properties of clusters depend very strongly on their size (size effect), their own classification has been developed for them - according to size (table).

Table

Classification of metal nanoclusters by size
(from a lecture by Prof. B.V. Romanovsky)

Number of atoms in a nanocluster	Diameter, nm	Fraction of atoms on the surface, %	Number of inner layers	Cluster type
1	0,24 – 0,34	100	0	–
2	0,45 – 0,60	100	0	–
3 – 12	0,55 – 0,80	100	0	Small
13 – 100	0,8 – 2,0	92 – 63	1 – 3	Average
10 2 – 10 4	2 – 10	63 – 15	4 – 18	Big
10 4 – 10 5	10 – 30	15 – 2	> 18	Giant
> 10 6	> 30	< 2	a lot of	colloidal particle

It turned out that the shape of nanoclusters significantly depends on their size, especially for a small number of atoms. The results of experimental studies, combined with theoretical calculations, showed that gold nanoclusters containing 13 and 14 atoms have a planar structure, in the case of 16 atoms they have a three-dimensional structure, and in the case of 20 they form a face-centered cubic cell resembling the structure of ordinary gold. It would seem that with a further increase in the number of atoms, this structure should be preserved. However, it is not. A particle consisting of 24 gold atoms in the gas phase has an unusual elongated shape (Fig. 6). Using chemical methods, it is possible to attach other molecules to clusters from the surface, which are able to organize them into more complex structures. It was found that gold nanoparticles combined with fragments of polystyrene molecules [–CH 2 –CH(C 6 H 5)–] n or polyethylene oxide (–CH 2 CH 2 O–) n, when they enter water, they are combined by their polystyrene fragments into cylindrical aggregates resembling colloidal particles - micelles, and some of them reach a length of 1000 nm. Scientists suggest that such objects can be used as anti-cancer drugs and catalysts.

Natural polymers such as gelatin or agar-agar are also used as substances that transfer gold nanoparticles into solution. By treating them with chloroauric acid or its salt, and then with a reducing agent, nanopowders are obtained that are soluble in water with the formation of bright red solutions containing colloidal gold particles. (For more details on the structure and properties of metal nanoclusters, see lecture No. 7, tasks 1 and 4.)

Interestingly, nanoclusters are present even in ordinary water. They are agglomerates of individual water molecules connected to each other by hydrogen bonds. It has been calculated that in saturated water vapor at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, there are 10,000 dimers (H 2 O) 2 , 10 cyclic trimers (H 2 O) 3 and one tetramer (H 2 O) 4 per 10 million single water molecules. In liquid water, particles of a much larger molecular weight, formed from several tens and even hundreds of water molecules, have also been found. Some of them exist in several isomeric modifications that differ in the form and order of connection of individual molecules. Especially many clusters are found in water at low temperatures, near the melting point. Such water is characterized by special properties - it has a higher density compared to ice and is better absorbed by plants. This is another example of the fact that the properties of a substance are determined not only by its qualitative or quantitative composition, i.e. chemical formula, but also its structure, including at the nanolevel.

Among other nanoobjects, nanotubes have been most thoroughly studied. This is the name given to lingering cylindrical structures with dimensions of several nanometers. Carbon nanotubes were first discovered in 1951 by Soviet physicists L.V. Radushkevich and V.M. Lukyanovich, but their publication, which appeared a year later in a domestic scientific journal, went unnoticed. Interest in them arose again after the work of foreign researchers in the 1990s. Carbon nanotubes are a hundred times stronger than steel, and many of them are good conductors of heat and electricity. We have already mentioned them when talking about Damascus blades. You will learn more about carbon nanotubes in lecture No. 4.

Recently, scientists have managed to synthesize nanotubes of boron nitride, as well as some metals, such as gold (Fig. 7, see p. fourteen). In terms of strength, they are significantly inferior to carbon ones, but, due to their much larger diameter, they are able to include even relatively large molecules. To obtain gold nanotubes, heating is not required - all operations are carried out at room temperature. A colloidal solution of gold with a particle size of 14 nm is passed through a column filled with porous alumina. In this case, gold clusters get stuck in the pores present in the aluminum oxide structure, uniting with each other into nanotubes. To free the formed nanotubes from aluminum oxide, the powder is treated with acid - aluminum oxide dissolves, and gold nanotubes settle at the bottom of the vessel, resembling algae in a micrograph.

An example of one-dimensional nanoobjects are nanothreads, or nanowires- this is the name of extended nanostructures with a cross section of less than 10 nm. With this order of magnitude, the object begins to exhibit special, quantum properties. Let us compare a copper nanowire 10 cm long and 3.6 nm in diameter with the same wire, but 0.5 mm in diameter. The size of an ordinary wire is many times greater than the distances between atoms, so the electrons move freely in all directions. In a nanowire, electrons are able to move freely only in one direction - along the wire, but not across, because its diameter is only a few times the distance between atoms. Physicists say that in a nanowire, electrons are localized in transverse directions, and delocalized in longitudinal directions.

Known nanowires of metals (nickel, gold, copper) and semiconductors (silicon), dielectrics (silicon oxide). With the slow interaction of silicon vapor with oxygen under special conditions, it is possible to obtain silicon oxide nanowires, on which, like twigs, globular silica formations resembling cherries hang. The size of such a "berry" is only 20 microns (µm). Molecular nanowires stand somewhat apart, an example of which is the DNA molecule - the keeper of hereditary information. A small number of inorganic molecular nanowires are molybdenum sulfides or selenides. A fragment of the structure of one of these compounds is shown in fig. 8. Thanks to the presence d-electrons in molybdenum atoms and the overlap of partially filled d-orbitals this substance conducts electric current.

Research on nanowires is currently being carried out at the laboratory level. However, it is already clear that they will be in demand when creating computers of new generations. Semiconductor nanowires, like conventional semiconductors, can be doped** according to R- or n-type. Already now on the basis of nanowires created p–n- transitions with an unusually small size. Thus, the foundations for the development of nanoelectronics are gradually being created.

The high strength of nanofibers makes it possible to reinforce various materials, including polymers, in order to increase their rigidity. And the replacement of the traditional carbon anode in lithium-ion batteries with a steel anode coated with silicon nanowires made it possible to increase the capacity of this current source by an order of magnitude.

An example of two-dimensional nanoobjects are nanofilms. Due to their very small thickness (only one or two molecules), they transmit light and are invisible to the eye. Polymer nanocoatings made of polystyrene and other polymers reliably protect many items used in everyday life - computer screens, cell phone windows, glasses lenses.

Single nanocrystals of semiconductors (for example, zinc sulfide ZnS or cadmium selenide CdSe) up to 10–50 nm in size are called quantum dots. They are considered zero-dimensional nano-objects. Such nanoobjects contain from one hundred to one hundred thousand atoms. When a quantum semiconductor is irradiated, an “electron-hole” pair (exciton) appears, the movement of which in a quantum dot is limited in all directions. Due to this, the exciton energy levels are discrete. Passing from the excited state to the ground state, the quantum dot emits light, and the wavelength depends on the size of the dot. This ability is being used to develop next-generation lasers and displays. Quantum dots can also be used as biological labels (markers), connecting them to certain proteins. Cadmium is rather toxic, therefore, in the production of quantum dots based on cadmium selenide, they are coated with a protective shell of zinc sulfide. And to obtain water-soluble quantum dots, which is necessary for biological applications, zinc is combined with small organic ligands.

The world of nanostructures already created by scientists is very rich and diverse. In it you can find analogues of almost all macro-objects of our ordinary world. It has its own flora and fauna, its own lunar landscapes and labyrinths, chaos and order. A large collection of various images of nanostructures is available at www.nanometer.ru. Does all of this find practical application? Of course no. Nanoscience is still very young - it is only about 20 years old! And like any young organism, it develops very quickly and is only just beginning to benefit. So far, only a small part of the achievements of nanoscience has been brought to the level of nanotechnologies, but the percentage of implementation is constantly growing, and in a few decades our descendants will be perplexed - how could we exist without nanotechnologies!

Questions

1. What is called nanoscience? Nanotechnology?

2. Comment on the phrase "every substance has a nanolevel."

3. Describe the place of nanochemistry in nanoscience.

4. Using the information given in the text of the lecture, estimate the number of gold atoms in 1 m 3 and in 1 nm 3.

Answer. 5,9 10 28 ; 59.

5. One of the founders of nanoscience, the American physicist R. Feynman, speaking about the theoretical possibility of mechanical manipulation of individual atoms, back in 1959 said the phrase that became famous: “There is a lot of space down there” ("There's plenty of room at the bottom"). How do you understand the scientist's statement?

6. What is the difference between physical and chemical methods of obtaining nanoparticles?

7. Explain the meaning of the terms: "nanoparticle", "cluster", "nanotube", "nanowire", "nanofilm", "nanopowder", "quantum dot".

8. Explain the meaning of the term "size effect". What properties does it show?

9. Copper nanopowder, unlike copper wire, quickly dissolves in hydroiodic acid. How to explain it?

10. Why does the color of colloidal solutions of gold containing nanoparticles differ from the color of an ordinary metal?

11. A spherical gold nanoparticle has a radius of 1.5 nm, the radius of a gold atom is 0.15 nm. Estimate how many gold atoms are contained in a nanoparticle.

Answer. 1000.

12. What type of clusters does the Au 55 particle belong to?

13. What other products, besides benzaldehyde, can be formed during the oxidation of styrene with atmospheric oxygen?

14. What are the similarities and differences between water obtained by melting ice and water formed by the condensation of steam?

15. Give examples of nano-objects of dimension 3; 2; one; 0.

Literature

Nanotechnologies. ABC for everyone. Ed. acad. Yu.D. Tretyakov. Moscow: Fizmatlit, 2008; Sergeev G.B. Nanochemistry. M.: Book House University, 2006; Ratner M., Ratner D. Nanotechnology. A simple explanation of another brilliant idea. Moscow: Williams, 2007; Rybalkina M. Nanotechnology for everyone. M., 2005; Menshutina N.V.. Introduction to nanotechnology. Kaluga: Publishing house of scientific literature Bochkareva N.F., 2006; Lalayants I.E. Nanochemistry. Chemistry (Publishing House "First of September"), 2002, No. 46, p. one; Rakov E.G. Chemistry and nanotechnology: two points of view. Chemistry (Publishing House "First of September"), 2004, No. 36, p. 29.

Internet resources

www.nanometer.ru – information site dedicated to nanotechnologies;

www.nauka.name - popular science portal;

www.nanojournal.ru - Russian electronic Nanojournal.

* Officially adopted by the Russian state corporation Rosnanotech.

** Doping is the introduction of small amounts of impurities that changes the electronic structure of the material. - Note. ed.

Atomic structure and shape of nanoparticles

As already mentioned, nanoparticles are a special state of condensed matter and are characterized by their structure and external shape. The most famous example is graphenes and nanotubes, which we mentioned. In this chapter, we will show how the structure and shape of a nanoparticle can change depending on the size of the nanoparticle, i.e. on the number of atoms it contains.

Let's start by comparing carbon and silicon. In the work, a comparative study of the energy of linear carbon clusters (chains) and flat clusters with a graphene-like structure (consisting of hexagonal cells) was carried out. The semi-empirical PM3 method and the density functional theory (DFT) approach were used for modeling.

Rice. 19. Atomic diagrams of a linear carbon chain (left) and a graphene-like planar cluster (right).

Carbon systems are well modeled by the PM3 method. Calculations show that both in linear chains and in graphene-like clusters, regardless of size, the equilibrium C–C distances turn out to be 1.3 Å. But the binding energy per atom is different. We calculated the binding energy by the formula

where E(atom) is the energy of a free atom, E(cluster, N) – energy N- atomic cluster. We started the calculation of linear clusters with N = 2, and hexagonal with N = 6, because exactly 6 atoms are needed to construct the minimal hexagonal particle.

Rice. 20. Dependence of binding energy (in absolute value) for carbon particles. 1-linear chains ( E lin), 2 - graphene-like clusters ( E graph).

From fig. 20 it can be seen that at N = 6 E lin > E graph. For N = 12 E lin< E graph , and with a further increase in the size of clusters ( N > 20) there is a trend towards energy efficiency of clusters with a hexagonal structure. In this case, the shape of graphene-like particles ceases to be flat and acquires a curvature (Fig. 21), similar to the curvature of a fullerene sphere (or nanotube), which is due to the tendency of the edge carbon atoms to saturate their unsaturated covalent bonds.

Rice. 21. View of a fragment of a graphene-like cluster with curvature.

Thus, when the number of carbon atoms is more than twenty, they combine into cellular clusters that tend to form shell particles of the fullerene (or nanotube) type. In these clusters, each atom is bonded to three neighbors, in contrast to diamond, in which each atom has equally strong (tetrahedral) bonds to four neighbors. Calculations show that carbon clusters with tetrahedral bonds are unstable and tend to rearrange themselves. It is known that in nature, diamond crystals are also unstable, and high pressures and temperatures are required for the transformation of graphite into diamond.

The possibilities of stabilizing small carbon clusters with a diamond tetrahedral structure by saturating external (unsaturated) bonds with hydrogen atoms and various metals were studied in this work.

First of all, we studied C 5 and C 8 clusters terminated with hydrogen: C 5 H 12 and C 8 H 18 . The geometric parameters of the C 5 H 12 cluster turned out to be very close to those of bulk diamond: d= 1.55–1.56 Å and θ = 109.1–110.1º. Small geometry distortions are caused by the interaction of hydrogen atoms with each other. Contrary to our expectations, the geometry of the C 8 H 18 cluster turned out to be less perfect. In particular, the inner distance C-C ( d in ,) increased to 1.62 Å, while the outer distances ( d out) retained their normal value of 1.54 Å. Internal corners ( θ in) are also superior to the outer corners ( θ out). Detailed data on the geometry of C 5 H 12 and C 8 H 18 clusters are given in Table 5 in comparison with the geometric parameters of the C 5 Me 12 and C 8 Me 18 systems, where the symbol Me means Li, K, Cu, Ag, or Au.

Rice. 22. Schemes of the studied diamond-like nanoclusters. White circles are carbon atoms, black circles are metal (or hydrogen) atoms.

Table 5. Geometric parameters ( d, d in , d out , θ , θ in , θ out) for C5 and C6 diamond-like clusters terminated by H, Li, K, Cu, Ag, or Au atoms.

Parameter			u
	1.36(dimer)	1.34(dimer)		1.31(dimer)
	51.39(dimer)	47.45(dimer)		45.39(dimer)
d in , Å	unstable	unstable
d out , Å
θ in , º
θ out , º			1 09.14

C 5 clusters terminated by Li, K, and Ag atoms are dimerized. This means that the two outer carbon atoms form a dimer with a length of 1.31 to 1.36 Å. This dimerization leads to a significant change in the angles between the bonds. The angles opposite to the dimers become small (~50º), but other angles increase to 118–120º. Copper and gold also retain the diamond-like structure of the C 5 cluster. However, in the case of copper, the geometric parameters ( d= 1.51 Å and and θ = 109.06º) is slightly closer to the parameters of a diamond than in the case of gold, for which. d= 1.44 Å and θ = 110.41º.

C 8 clusters terminated by lithium and potassium are marked in table 1 as unstable. This means that their initial diamond-like structures were significantly reconstructed in the process of relaxation. In both systems, C–C dimers were formed, the interatomic bonds were distorted and twisted, and, in addition, in the case of potassium, some of the metal atoms separated from the carbon cluster and formed their own agglomerates (triangles, linear chains, etc.) C 8 clusters terminated by Ag ( Au) have noticeably lengthened. The distance between the inner carbon atoms is 2.4 (2.2) Å, while the outer atoms are 1.42 (1.46) Å away from the inner ones. Accordingly, the internal angles θ in are reduced, and external θ out are increased in comparison with the value of 109.47º. The best case is copper termination. It gives d= 1.50-1.51 Å and θ = 109.14-110.04º, i.e. values very close to those corresponding to diamond. It should be noted that copper termination provides better results even compared to hydrogen.

It is also interesting to compare the energy characteristics of carbon clusters with different terminations, namely: to compare the adhesion energies ( E adh) for metal (or hydrogen) atoms that saturate the bonds of edge carbon atoms:

where E(system) is the energy of a relaxed system consisting of a carbon nanocluster and metal (or hydrogen) atoms terminating it; E(carbon) and E(Me or H) are the energies of a carbon cluster separated from each other and a group of terminating atoms whose geometries are taken from a relaxed system; N(Me or H) is the number of metal (or hydrogen) atoms used for termination.

The comparison results are shown in Table 6. Analysis of these data shows that hydrogen atoms have maximum adhesion to diamond-like carbon nanoclusters. It can be assumed that such high values of the adhesion energy (4–6 eV) should hinder the further growth of diamond-like nanoclusters at low temperatures. On the other hand, the adhesion energy of metals does not exceed 1.5 eV; therefore, additional carbon atoms can easily replace metal atoms at the carbon cluster boundary, and in this case, the growth of diamond-like particles can continue. Our calculations show that copper atoms stabilize the diamond-like geometry of carbon nanoclusters even better than hydrogen atoms.

Table 6. Adhesion energy (in eV) for various types of atoms.

Let's compare these results with simulation of silicon particles. In the work, small silicon nanoparticles (from Si 2 to Si 10), their structure and energy were studied. Modified Hartree-Fock (HF) method was used for modeling. Modification (MP4) was to take into account the electron correlation. For each cluster, several possible geometric configurations were considered, each of which was optimized by minimizing the total energy. Schemes of some of them are shown in Fig. 23.

Rice. 23. Schemes of small silicon clusters. Distances are in angstroms.

Table 7 shows the binding energies calculated by the MP4 and HF methods in comparison with the experiment.

Table 7. Binding energies calculated by MP4 and HF methods compared with experiment.

cluster	Binding energy, eV per atom
cluster		Experiment







bulk silicon

The data in the table illustrate that as the nanoparticle grows, the binding energy of atoms in it approaches the binding energy of the bulk (massive) material. It can also be seen that the classical Hartree-Fock method (ignoring electron correlation) significantly underestimates the binding energy.

Similar studies were carried out later by the DFT method. The authors used a translational approach with a 30 AU supercell, which provided vacuum gaps between clusters of about 10 Å in size. The calculations were carried out in the LDA approximation with pseudopotentials in the Kleinman-Bylander form. To represent the wave functions of silicon, we used the basis of plane waves with a cutoff energy of 10 Ry. The studied cluster structures are shown in Figs. 24, and Table 4 shows the corresponding binding energies per atom. It can be seen from the figure that the shape and symmetry of small silicon nanoparticles is unique for each number of atoms. It can be seen from the table that this calculation also indicates that as the number of atoms increases, the binding energy approaches its value characteristic of a bulk material (4.63 eV).

Rice. 24. Schemes of silicon clusters considered in the work.

The dependence of the binding energy on the number of atoms in a silicon cluster is shown in Figure 25.

Rice. 25. Dependence of the binding energy on the number of atoms in a silicon cluster.

From the graph in Fig. 25 shows that the binding energy does not increase monotonically. At n= 7 and 10 local maxima are observed. Such clusters (with maximum binding energies) are called “magic” clusters, since they occur most often in experiments.

As already mentioned, first principles modeling makes it possible to adequately describe the structure and properties of heterogeneous nanosystems consisting of atoms of various elements. For example, nanoparticles of amorphous silicon dioxide were studied in the works.

Silicon dioxide is one of the main materials used in various technical and chemical technologies. It is known that amorphous silicon dioxide consists mainly of Si-O-rings connected by oxygen atoms or short zigzag Si-O-Si chains. It was shown in this work that hexagonal rings predominate in bulk amorphous SiO 2 . However, in other work it was noted that in thin films of SiO 2 , the rings mostly have 4 corners. How is it with nanoparticles?

Particles of various sizes (up to 192 atoms: 64 Si and 128 O) were considered using the semi-empirical AM1 method, which was tested in the same work on the problem of studying oxygen hemadsorption on silicon in comparison with calculations within the framework of DFT-LDA. Then the equilibrium structures of single, isolated rings with the number of angles n from 2 to 6. They are shown in fig. 26.

Rice. 26. Ring-shaped particles (SiO 2) n.

The formation of amorphous nanoparticles of different sizes was carried out as follows. A certain number of SiO 2 molecules were taken and placed at the sites of the cubic lattice with a frequency of 5 Å. Then the positions of the molecules and their orientation angles were randomly changed, after which the structure optimization procedure was started until an equilibrium atomic geometry was obtained. Of course, only a local energy minimum was achieved in this case, since there were no temperature effects. To study how the starting distributions of molecules affect the final result, we performed several 5 calculations with different starting distributions. In this case, particles of two sizes were studied: A) 81-atom (27 SiO 2 molecules) and B) 192-atom (64 SiO 2 molecules). Typical images of such particles are shown in Figs. 27. It turned out that each particle contains rings of different sizes.

Rice. 27. Silicon dioxide nanoparticles obtained by splicing randomly arranged SiO 2 molecules.

Table 8 presents statistics n – corner SiO rings in the studied nanoparticles. It is easy to see that both 81-atomic and 192-atomic particles are dominated by 2-angle rings. However, as the size increases, the number of rings with n equal to 3, 4, 5.6, and even rings with n= 7. Thus, the tendency towards the formation of bulk properties is quite obvious.

Table 8. Statistics n – corner SiO rings in the studied nanoparticles.

Numbercalculation

Average integer

It is also interesting to see how the binding energy behaves. E b and such an important value for a dielectric as the band gap. However, it should be clarified that the concept of "forbidden zone" for nanoparticles is literally unacceptable. There are no zones in the electronic structure of nanoparticles, there are only separate energy levels, which can be further or closer from each other. However, for nanoparticles, as well as for molecules, there is the concept of "energy gap", E gap , which separates the upper filled states from the lower unfilled states, and it plays the role of a band gap for them. Table 9 shows data on E b (eV per molecule) and E gap (eV) for silicon dioxide nanoparticles.

Table 9. Values of the energy gap E gap (eV) and binding energies E b (eV) for silicon dioxide nanoparticles: A – 81 atoms, B – 192 atoms.


Calculation number



Calculation number

Calculations show that the energy gap of SiO 2 nanoparticles is actually independent of the particle size and is close in magnitude to the band gap of bulk silicon dioxide (8–9 eV). As expected, the binding energy increases with particle growth.

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LECTURE #

Classification of nanoclusters. Nanoparticles

Material from Introduction to Nanotechnology.

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Nanoparticles are particles whose size is less than 100 nm. Nanoparticles are composed of 106 or fewer atoms, and their properties differ from those of a bulk substance composed of the same atoms (see figure).

Nanoparticles smaller than 10 nm are called nanoclusters. The word cluster comes from the English "cluster" - a cluster, a bunch. Usually, a nanocluster contains up to 1000 atoms.

Many physical laws valid in macroscopic physics (macroscopic physics "deals" with objects whose dimensions are much larger than 100 nm) are violated for nanoparticles. For example, the well-known formulas for adding the resistances of conductors when they are connected in parallel and in series are unfair. Water in rock nanopores does not freeze down to –20…–30оС, and the melting temperature of gold nanoparticles is significantly lower compared to a massive sample.

In recent years, many publications have given spectacular examples of the influence of particle sizes of a particular substance on its properties - electrical, magnetic, optical. Thus, the color of ruby glass depends on the content and size of colloidal (microscopic) gold particles. Colloidal solutions of gold can give a whole gamut of colors - from orange (particle size less than 10 nm) and ruby (10-20 nm) to blue (about 40 nm). The London Museum of the Royal Institute stores colloidal solutions of gold, which were obtained by Michael Faraday in the middle of the 19th century, who was the first to associate their color variations with particle size.

The fraction of surface atoms becomes larger as the particle size decreases. For nanoparticles, almost all atoms are "surface", so their chemical activity is very high. For this reason, metal nanoparticles tend to combine. At the same time, in living organisms (plants, bacteria, microscopic fungi), metals, as it turned out, often exist in the form of clusters consisting of a combination of a relatively small number of atoms.

Wave-particle duality allows you to assign a specific wavelength to each particle. In particular, this applies to waves that characterize an electron in a crystal, to waves associated with the motion of elementary atomic magnets, etc. Unusual properties of nanostructures hinder their trivial technical use and at the same time open up completely unexpected technical prospects.

Consider a cluster of spherical geometry consisting of i atoms. The volume of such a cluster can be written as:

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where a is the average radius of one particle.

Then you can write:

https://pandia.ru/text/80/170/images/image008_13.gif" alt="(!LANG:Image:image020.gif" width="205" height="36 src=">. (2.4)!}

Number of atoms on the surface iS is related to the surface area through the ratio:

https://pandia.ru/text/80/170/images/image010_12.gif" alt="(!LANG:Image:image026.gif" width="205" height="54 src=">. (2.6)!}

As can be seen from formula (2.6), the fraction of atoms on the cluster surface rapidly decreases with increasing cluster size. A noticeable effect of the surface is manifested at cluster sizes smaller than 100 nm.

An example is silver nanoparticles, which have unique antibacterial properties. The fact that silver ions are able to neutralize harmful bacteria and microorganisms has been known for a long time. It has been established that silver nanoparticles are thousands of times more effective in fighting bacteria and viruses than many other substances.

Classification of nanoobjects

Classification of nanoobjects
Solid objects are classified by dimension: 1) three-dimensional (3D) structures, they are called nanoclusters ( cluster- accumulation, bunch); 2) flat two-dimensional (2D) objects - nanofilms; 3) linear one-dimensional (1D) structures - nanowires, or nanowires (nanowires); 4) zero-dimensional (0D) objects - nanodots, or quantum dots. Porous structures include nanotubes and nanoporous materials, such as amorphous silicates.

Table

Classification of metal nanoclusters by size (from a lecture by prof.)

In chemistry, the term "cluster" is used to denote a group of closely spaced and closely related atoms, molecules, ions, and sometimes even ultrafine particles.

This concept was first introduced in 1964, when Professor F. Cotton proposed to call clusters chemical compounds in which metal atoms form a chemical bond with each other. As a rule, in such compounds, metal metal clusters are bound to ligands that have a stabilizing effect and surround the metal core of the cluster like a shell. Cluster compounds of metals with the general formula MmLn are classified into small (m/n< 1), средние (m/n ~ 1), большие (m/n >1) and giant (m >> n) clusters. Small clusters usually contain up to 12 metal atoms, medium and large - up to 150, and giant (their diameter reaches 2-10 nm) - more than 150 atoms.

Although the term "cluster" has been widely used relatively recently, the very concept of a small group of atoms, ions, or molecules is natural for chemistry, since it is associated with the formation of nuclei during crystallization or associates in a liquid. Clusters also include nanoparticles with an ordered structure, having a given packing of atoms and a regular geometric shape.

It turned out that the shape of nanoclusters significantly depends on their size, especially for a small number of atoms. The results of experimental studies, combined with theoretical calculations, showed that gold nanoclusters containing 13 and 14 atoms have a planar structure, in the case of 16 atoms they have a three-dimensional structure, and in the case of 20 they form a face-centered cubic cell resembling the structure of ordinary gold. It would seem that with a further increase in the number of atoms, this structure should be preserved. However, it is not. A particle consisting of 24 gold atoms in the gas phase has an unusual elongated shape (Fig.). Using chemical methods, it is possible to attach other molecules to clusters from the surface, which are able to organize them into more complex structures. Gold Nanoparticles Combined with Fragments of Polystyrene Molecules [–CH2–CH(C6H5)–] n or polyethylene oxide (–CH2CH2O–) n, when they enter water, they are combined by their polystyrene fragments into cylindrical aggregates resembling colloidal particles - micelles, and some of them reach a length of 1000 nm.

Interestingly, nanoclusters are present even in ordinary water. They are agglomerates of individual water molecules connected to each other by hydrogen bonds. It has been calculated that in saturated water vapor at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, there are 10,000 dimers (H2O)2, 10 cyclic trimers (H2O)3, and one tetramer (H2O)4 per 10 million single water molecules. In liquid water, particles of a much larger molecular weight, formed from several tens and even hundreds of water molecules, have also been found. Some of them exist in several isomeric modifications that differ in the form and order of connection of individual molecules. Especially many clusters are found in water at low temperatures, near the melting point. Such water is characterized by special properties - it has a higher density compared to ice and is better absorbed by plants. This is another example of the fact that the properties of a substance are determined not only by its qualitative or quantitative composition, i.e., by its chemical formula, but also by its structure, including at the nanolevel.

Recently, scientists have been able to synthesize nanotubes of boron nitride, as well as some metals, such as gold. In terms of strength, they are significantly inferior to carbon ones, but, due to their much larger diameter, they are able to include even relatively large molecules. To obtain gold nanotubes, heating is not required - all operations are carried out at room temperature. A colloidal solution of gold with a particle size of 14 nm is passed through a column filled with porous alumina. In this case, gold clusters get stuck in the pores present in the aluminum oxide structure, uniting with each other into nanotubes. To free the formed nanotubes from aluminum oxide, the powder is treated with acid - aluminum oxide dissolves, and gold nanotubes settle at the bottom of the vessel, resembling algae in a micrograph.

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Types of metal particles (1Å=10-10 m)

As the transition from a single atom in a zero-valent state (M) to a metal particle that has all the properties of a compact metal, the system goes through a number of intermediate stages:

Morphology" href="/text/category/morfologiya/" rel="bookmark">morphological elements. Then stable large particles of the new phase are formed.

https://pandia.ru/text/80/170/images/image018_11.gif" width="623" height="104 src="> For a chemically more complex system, the interaction of dissimilar atoms leads to the formation of molecules with a predominantly covalent or a mixed covalent-ionic bond, the degree of ionicity of which increases as the difference in the electronegativity of the elements that form the molecules increases.

There are two types of nanoparticles: particles of an ordered structure with a size of 1–5 nm, containing up to 1000 atoms (nanoclusters or nanocrystals), and actually nanoparticles with a diameter of 5 to 100 nm, consisting of 103–106 atoms. Such a classification is correct only for isotropic (spherical) particles. filiform and

lamellar particles can contain many more atoms and have one or even two linear dimensions that exceed the threshold value, but their properties remain characteristic of a substance in a nanocrystalline state. The ratio of the linear sizes of nanoparticles makes it possible to consider them as one-, two-, or three-dimensional nanoparticles. If a nanoparticle has a complex shape and structure, then not the linear size as a whole, but the size of its structural element is considered as a characteristic one. Such particles are called nanostructures.

CLUSTERS AND QUANTUM-SIZE EFFECTS

The term "cluster" comes from the English word cluster - bunch, swarm, accumulation. Clusters occupy an intermediate position between individual molecules and macrobodies. The presence of unique properties in nanoclusters is associated with a limited number of their constituent atoms, since the scale effects are the stronger, the closer the particle size is to the atomic one. Therefore, the properties of a single isolated cluster can be compared both with the properties of individual atoms and molecules, and with the properties of a massive solid. The concept of "isolated cluster" is very abstract, since it is practically impossible to obtain a cluster that does not interact with the environment.

The existence of energetically more favorable “magic” clusters can explain the nonmonotonic dependence of the properties of nanoclusters on their sizes. The formation of the core of a molecular cluster occurs in accordance with the concept of dense packing of metal atoms, similar to the formation of a massive metal. The number of metal atoms in a close-packed nucleus constructed as a regular 12-vertex polyhedron (cuboctahedron, icosahedron, or anticuboctahedron) is calculated by the formula:

N=1/3 (10n3 + 15n2 + 11n + 3) (1),

where n is the number of layers around the central atom. Thus, the minimum close-packed nucleus contains 13 atoms: one central atom and 12 atoms from the first layer. The result is a set of "magic" numbers N=13, 55, 147, 309, 561, 923, 1415, 2057, etc., corresponding to the most stable nuclei of metal clusters.

The electrons of the metal atoms constituting the core of the cluster are not delocalized, in contrast to the generalized electrons of the same metal atoms in a massive sample, but form discrete energy levels that are different from molecular orbitals. On passing from a bulk metal to a cluster, and then to a molecule, a transition from delocalized s- and d-electrons, which form the conduction band of a massive metal, to non-delocalized electrons, which form discrete energy levels in a cluster, and then to molecular orbitals. The appearance of discrete electronic bands in metal clusters, the size of which lies in the region of 1-4 nm, should be accompanied by the appearance of one-electron transitions.

An effective way to observe such effects is tunneling microscopy, which makes it possible to obtain current-voltage characteristics by fixing the microscope tip on a molecular cluster. When passing from the cluster to the tip of the tunneling microscope, the electron overcomes the Coulomb barrier, the value of which is equal to the electrostatic energy ΔE = e2/2C (C is the capacitance of the nanocluster, proportional to its size).

For small clusters, the electrostatic energy of an electron becomes greater than its kinetic energy kT , therefore, steps appear on the current-voltage curve U=f(I) corresponding to one electronic transition. Thus, with a decrease in the size of the cluster and the temperature of the one-electron transition, the linear dependence U=f(I), which is characteristic of a bulk metal, is violated.

Quantum size effects have been observed in the study of the magnetic susceptibility and heat capacity of molecular clusters of palladium at ultralow temperatures. It is shown that an increase in the cluster size leads to an increase in the specific magnetic susceptibility, which, at a particle size of ~30 nm, becomes equal to the value for the bulk metal. Bulk Pd has Pauli paramagnetism, which is provided by electrons with energy EF near the Fermi energy, so its magnetic susceptibility is practically independent of temperature up to liquid helium temperatures. Calculations show that upon going from Pd2057 to Pd561, i.e., upon decreasing the size of the Pd cluster, the density of states decreases at EF , which causes a change in magnetic susceptibility. The calculation predicts that as the temperature decreases (T → 0), only the susceptibility drops to zero or increases to infinity for an even and odd number of electrons, respectively, should occur. Since we studied clusters containing an odd number of electrons, we actually observed an increase in the magnetic susceptibility: significant for Pd561 (with a maximum at T<2 К), слабый для Pd1415 и почти полное отсутствие температурной зависимости для что характерно для массивного Pd.

No less interesting regularities were observed when measuring the heat capacity of giant Pd molecular clusters. Massive solids are characterized by a linear temperature dependence of the electronic heat capacity С~Т . The transition from a massive solid to nanoclusters is accompanied by the appearance of quantum size effects, which manifest themselves in the deviation of the C=f(T) dependence from linear as the cluster size decreases. Thus, the greatest deviation from the linear dependence is observed for Pd561. Taking into account the correction for the ligand dependence (С~ТЗ) for nanoclusters at ultralow temperatures Т<1К была получена зависимость С~Т2.

It is known that the heat capacity of a cluster is C=kT/δ (δ - average distance between energy levels, δ = EF/N, where N is the number of electrons in the cluster). Calculations of the δ/k values carried out for the Pd561, Pd1415, and Pd2057 clusters, as well as for a colloidal Pd cluster with a size of -15 nm, gave values of 12; 4.5; 3.0; and 0.06K

respectively. Thus, the unusual dependence C ~ T2 in the region T<1К свидетельствует о влиянии квантоворазмерных эффектов. Таким образом, рассматривая те или иные явления, необходимо учитывать, что крупные частицы сходны по своему строению с соответствующей макрофазой, тогда как нанообъекты имеют иную структуру. Некоторые масштабные эффекты обнаруживаются уже при d<10 мкм.

The organization of a nanostructure from nanoclusters occurs according to the same laws as the formation of clusters from atoms.

On fig. presents a colloidal gold particle of almost spherical shape, obtained as a result of spontaneous aggregation of nanocrystals with an average size of 35 ± 5 nm. However, clusters have a significant difference from atoms - they have a real surface and real intercluster boundaries. Due to the large surface of nanoclusters, and, consequently, the excess surface energy, aggregation processes are inevitable, directed towards a decrease in the Gibbs energy. Moreover, inter-cluster interactions create stresses, excess energy and excess pressure at the boundaries of clusters. Therefore, the formation of nanosystems from nanoclusters is accompanied by the appearance of a large number of defects and stresses, which leads to a fundamental change in the properties of the nanosystem.

NANOMATERIALS

Nanoparticles are usually called objects consisting of atoms, ions or molecules and having a size of less than 100 nm. Metal particles are an example. It is known that water in contact with silver can kill pathogenic bacteria. The healing power of such water is explained by the content of the smallest particles of silver in it, these are nanoparticles! Due to their small size, these particles differ in properties both from individual atoms and from a bulk material consisting of many billions of billions of atoms, such as a silver ingot.

Many physical properties of a substance, such as its color, thermal and electrical conductivity, and melting point, depend on the particle size. For example, the melting point of gold nanoparticles with a size of 5 nm is 250° lower than that of ordinary gold (Fig. 5.1). As the size of gold nanoparticles increases, the melting temperature increases and reaches 1337 K, which is typical for a conventional material.

Further, glass acquires color if it contains particles whose dimensions are comparable to the wavelength of visible light, i.e. are nanosized. This explains the bright color of medieval stained-glass windows, which contain various sizes of metal nanoparticles or their oxides. And the electrical conductivity of a material is determined by the mean free path - the distance that an electron travels between two collisions with atoms. It is also measured in nanometers. If the size of a metal nanoparticle turns out to be less than this distance, then one should expect the appearance of special electrical properties in the material, which are not characteristic of an ordinary metal.

Individual nanoparticles containing no more than 1000 atoms are called nanoclusters. The properties of such particles differ significantly from the properties of a crystal, which contains a huge number of atoms. This is due to the special role of the surface. Indeed, reactions involving solids do not occur in the volume, but on the surface. An example is the interaction of zinc with hydrochloric acid. If you look closely, you can see that hydrogen bubbles form on the surface of zinc, and the atoms located in the depth do not participate in the reaction. Atoms lying on the surface have more energy, because. they have fewer neighbors in the crystal lattice. A gradual decrease in particle size leads to an increase in the total surface area, an increase in the fraction of atoms on the surface (Fig. 2), and an increase in the role of surface energy. It is especially high in nanoclusters, where most of the atoms are on the surface. Therefore, it is not surprising that, for example, nanogold is many times more chemically active than ordinary gold. For example, gold nanoparticles containing 55 atoms (diameter 1.4 nm) deposited on the surface of TiO 2 serve as good catalysts for the selective oxidation of styrene with atmospheric oxygen to benzaldehyde ( Nature, 2008):

C 6 H 5 -CH \u003d CH 2 + O 2 -> C 6 H 5 -CH \u003d O + H 2 O,

while particles with a diameter of more than 2 nm, and even more so ordinary gold, do not show catalytic activity at all.

Interestingly, nanoclusters are present even in ordinary water. They are agglomerates of individual water molecules connected to each other by hydrogen bonds. It is calculated that in saturated water vapor at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, there are 10,000 (H 2 O) 2 dimers, 10 cyclic trimers (H 2 O) 3 and one tetramer (H 2 O) 4 per 10 million single water molecules. In liquid water, particles of a much larger molecular weight, formed from several tens and even hundreds of water molecules, have also been found. Some of them exist in several isomeric modifications that differ in the form and order of connection of individual molecules. Especially many clusters are found in water at low temperatures, near the melting point. Such water is characterized by special properties - it has a higher density compared to ice and is better absorbed by plants. This is another example of the fact that the properties of a substance are determined not only by its qualitative or quantitative composition, i.e. chemical formula, but also its structure, including at the nanolevel.

Known nanowires of metals (nickel, gold, copper) and semiconductors (silicon), dielectrics (silicon oxide). With the slow interaction of silicon vapor with oxygen under special conditions, it is possible to obtain silicon oxide nanowires, on which, like twigs, globular silica formations resembling cherries hang. The size of such a "berry" is only 20 microns (µm). Molecular nanowires stand somewhat apart, an example of which is the DNA molecule - the keeper of hereditary information. A small number of inorganic molecular nanowires are molybdenum sulfides or selenides. A fragment of the structure of one of these compounds is shown in fig. 4. Thanks to the presence d-electrons in molybdenum atoms and the overlap of partially filled d-orbitals this substance conducts electric current.

Semiconductor nanowires, like conventional semiconductors, can be doped** according to R- or n-type. Already now on the basis of nanowires created p–n- transitions with an unusually small size. Thus, the foundations for the development of nanoelectronics are gradually being created.

Magnetic properties. The properties of nanoparticles of magnetic materials differ significantly from the properties of macroparticles. The size effect manifests itself in a significant decrease in the Curie point. For Fe, Co, Ni nanoparticles less than 10 nm in size, the Curie point is hundreds of degrees lower than for macroscopic samples.

Magnetic size effects are very pronounced for Pd clusters. Macroscopic Pd samples exhibit paramagnetism and their magnetic susceptibility is almost independent of temperature up to the temperature of liquid He.

With a significant decrease in the size of the cluster, they become diamagnetic. The size of dispersed particles also affects the coercive field or force ( Ns, A/m), which is one of the most important characteristics of ferromagnetic materials. At Ns 100 A/m materials are considered soft magnetic, at Ns 100 A/m magnetically hard.

The coercive field of nanoclusters ( d 4 nm) iron is almost zero. Such low values are due to thermal fluctuations. At room temperature for iron, the coercive field is maximum for crystals with a size of 20–25 nm. Therefore, nanocrystalline ferromagnets can be used to produce memory devices with a large memory. It is very promising to use nanodispersed magnetized particles with a diameter of about 10 nm for the preparation of ferromagnetic liquids - colloidal solutions in which the dispersed phase is nanomagnetic particles, and the dispersion medium is a liquid, for example, water or kerosene. When an external magnetic field is applied, the nanoparticles begin to move and set the surrounding fluid in motion. The prospect of industrial use of this effect is very large (for example, for cooling powerful transformers in electrical engineering, for magnetic enrichment of ores, for cleaning water basins from oil pollution). In the medical field, magnetic nanoparticles can be used, in particular, as targeted drug delivery vehicles.

catalytic properties. Highly dispersed and especially nanodispersed solid particles of metals and metal oxides have a high catalytic activity, which makes it possible to carry out various chemical reactions at relatively low temperatures and pressures. Let us give an example showing the catalytic properties of highly dispersed particles.

Nanoparticles Au size 3 - 5 nm have a highly specific catalytic activity. Its appearance is associated with the transition of the crystal structure of gold from the face-centered cubic structure in larger particles to the icosahedral structure of nanoparticles. The most important characteristics of these nanocatalysts (activity, selectivity, temperature) depend on the substrate material on which they are deposited. In addition, even traces of moisture are very strongly affected. Nanosized Au particles effectively catalyze the oxidation of carbon monoxide at low (down to -70 °C) temperatures. At the same time, they have a very high selectivity in the reduction of nitrogen oxides at room temperature, if gold particles are deposited on the surface of aluminum oxide.

Nanoparticles of various materials are used everywhere - from the paint and varnish industry to the food industry. The most "popular" nanoparticles are particles made of carbon (nanotubes, fullerenes, graphene), nanoparticles of silicon oxide, gold, silver, as well as zinc oxide and titanium dioxide. Let's briefly discuss how they are used and what biological effects they can have.

Carbon nanoparticles, in particular, carbon nanotubes(CNTs) have unique electrical, thermal and mechanical properties, they are widely used in electronics, are part of composite materials used for a variety of purposes - from the production of materials for tennis rackets to parts for spacecraft. It has recently been established that CNT agglomerates can be formed as a result of combustion processes of hydrocarbons, including household gas, and are contained in dust and air. The ability of CNTs to overcome biological membranes and their ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier serve as the basis for research on the use of CNTs as carriers for targeted drug delivery. Studies on the toxicity of CNTs often give conflicting results, and at the moment this issue is open.

Most of the produced nanosized SiO 2 is nanopowders of amorphous silicon dioxide(NADC). They are widely used in industry - in the process of manufacturing heat insulators, in the production of optoelectronics, as a component for the production of heat-resistant paints, varnishes and adhesives, as well as emulsion stabilizers. NADK is also added to coatings to protect against abrasion and scratches. To make the coating transparent, nanopowders with an average particle size of less than 40 nm are used. The systemic toxicity of silica nanoparticles for animals and humans is poorly studied, but the breadth of their range of applications puts them in one of the first places in the list of nanoparticles that require a detailed study of their biological properties.

The beginning of scientific research colloidal gold(KZ) should be considered the middle of the 19th century, when an article by Michael Faraday was published on the methods of synthesis and properties of CG. Faraday was the first to describe the aggregation of CG in the presence of electrolytes, the protective effect of gelatin and other macromolecular compounds, and the properties of thin CG films. At present, CG is used as an object for studying the optical properties of metal particles, the mechanisms of aggregation and stabilization of colloids. Examples of the use of CG in medicine are known, in particular, in color reactions for proteins. Gold particles are used to study the transport of substances into the cell by endocytosis, to deliver genetic material to the cell nucleus, and also for targeted drug delivery. Industry colloidal gold nanoparticles are used in photo printing and in the production of glass and dyes.

Colloidal nanosilver- a product consisting of silver nanoparticles suspended in water containing a stabilizer of the colloidal system (Fig. 5). The typical size of silver nanoparticles is 5-50 nm. The areas of application of silver nanoparticles can be different: spectrally selective coatings for absorbing solar energy, as catalysts for chemical reactions, for antimicrobial sterilization. The last area of application is the most important and includes the production of various packaging, dressings and water-based paints and enamels. Currently, preparations based on colloidal silver are produced - biologically active additives with antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal effects. Colloidal silver preparations are among the most common and widely used nanoparticles in the industry. A layer of silver nanoparticles covers cutlery, doorknobs and even keyboards and mice for computers. Silver nanoparticles are used in the creation of new coatings and cosmetics. Nanoscale silver is also used to purify water and kill pathogens in air conditioning filters, swimming pools, showers and other places. However, the question of the impact of silver nanoparticles on the environment remains open.

Nanoparticles of a substance often have properties that are not found in samples of these substances that have ordinary sizes. Thus, silver and gold nanoparticles become good catalysts for chemical reactions, and also directly participate in them. Silver nanoparticles exhibit the ability to generate reactive oxygen species. Therefore, compared with macro-sized silver, its nanoparticles can exhibit greater toxicity. In the human body, silver nanoparticles can lead to a whole range of body tissue responses, such as cell activation, cell death, generation of reactive oxygen species, and inflammatory processes in various tissues and organs.

The most interesting properties due to which nanoparticles zinc oxide and titanium dioxide received their distribution, are their antibacterial and photo-catalytic properties. Currently, ZnO and TiO 2 particles are used as antiseptics in toothpaste and cosmetics, paint, plastics and textiles. Due to their photocatalytic activity and absorption of light in the UV range, zinc oxide and titanium dioxide have become widely used in sunscreens. A comparison of sunscreens showed that out of 1,200 sunscreens, 228 contained zinc oxide, 363 contained titanium dioxide, and 73 contained both. At the same time, in 70% of creams containing titanium dioxide, and in 30% of creams containing zinc oxide, these elements were in the form of nanoparticles. The photocatalytic activity of ZnO and TiO 2 particles lies in the fact that, under the action of light, these particles are able to capture electrons from nearby molecules. If the nanoparticles are in an aqueous solution, then this process leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species, mainly hydroxyl radicals. These properties determine the antiseptic properties of nanoparticles, and can also be used for targeted modification of the surface of nanoparticles or molecules located on their surface. Despite the widespread use of ZnO and TiO 2 nanoparticles in cosmetics and foodstuffs, more and more works have recently appeared that show that photocatalytic activity can have toxic effects on cells and tissues. Thus, it has been shown that TiO 2 is genotoxic; causes DNA strand breaks in human and fish cells under the action of light and can contribute to the aging of the body due to the formation of reactive oxygen species.

When using nanosized materials in industry, one should not forget about the ecotoxicity of nanoparticles. A simple calculation shows that in 2 g of 100 nm nanoparticles, there are so many nanoparticles that for every person on earth there will be about 300,000 thousand. The use of nanoparticles in industry and, therefore, their content in our environment continues to increase every year. On the one hand, the advantage of using nanoparticles is obvious. On the other hand, the problem of detecting nanoparticles has not yet been studied, and the possibility of their influence on the human body remains open. The data obtained in various studies on the effect of nanoparticles on organisms are quite contradictory, but one should not forget about the relevance of this problem. It is necessary to continue to study the effect of nanoparticles on living organisms and to create methods for detecting nanoparticles in the environment.

The world of nanostructures already created by scientists is very rich and diverse. So far, only a small part of the achievements of nanoscience has been brought to the level of nanotechnologies, but the percentage of implementation is constantly growing, and in a few decades our descendants will be perplexed - how could we exist without nanotechnologies!

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V.V. EREMIN,
A.A. DROZDOV

LECTURE #1
What is hidden behind the prefix "nano"?