• Domestic science and medicine in the 19th - early 20th centuries Chemistry of the 19th century in medicine
• What are peptides? Types and types of peptides. All about peptides and anti-aging cosmetics with peptides Additional peptides are not formed
• Toxic effect on humans of hazardous chemicals
• Radioautography Method of autoradiography in cytology
• Identification of bacteria by antigenic structure
• Organic matter in wastewater What are organic compounds in water
• Hydrogen index (pH factor)
• What is the pH of water and why is it important to know it?
• Redox potential Redox systems
• Reversible redox system Reversible redox systems

FOREWORD
Modern industry, construction, transport, communications, energy, agriculture and medicine use almost all chemical elements and their compounds.
The problem of creating chemical materials is the most important in the revolutionary transformation of radio-electronic and rocket technology, construction equipment, mechanical engineering and instrumentation, transport and communications technology.
The creation of more and more advanced equipment for artificial earth satellites and spacecraft poses new problems for chemistry and the chemical industry in the creation of polymer and semiconductor materials that do not change their properties over a wide temperature range and are resistant to radiation.
New advances in chemistry in obtaining ultrapure single crystals led to the creation of transistor technology.
New advances in chemistry in the production of ferrites opened the way for the development of cybernetic and radar technology.
Nowadays, chemical technology, gradually ousting mechanical technology from most branches of industry, opens up great prospects for raising the productivity of social labor.
Chemistry creates new forms of mineral fertilizers and new means of selection for obtaining high-yielding types of agricultural plants.
Chemistry has made a great contribution to the knowledge of the processes occurring in living matter and the laws of heredity.
Chemical substances and their transformations obey the periodic law of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev and the theory of chemical structure of A. M. Butlerov.
The most important branches of chemistry - electrolytic dissociation, redox reactions, electrolysis, corrosion of metals - are closely linked by the authors with the information that students received in high school in physics.
The manual briefly outlines all the questions of the program in chemistry for applicants to universities and provides solutions to problems in all its sections. This manual summarizes on a new basis the material on chemistry in the secondary school and is a transitional step to the study of the course of chemistry in higher education.
The sections "Basic laws and concepts of chemistry" and "Inorganic chemistry" were written by the candidate of chemical sciences A. L. Makarenya, the section "Organic chemistry" was written by the candidate of chemical sciences P. M. Zavlin.
The manual takes into account the experience of teaching chemistry at the preparatory courses of the Leningrad University named after A. A. Zhdanov and the Leningrad Electrotechnical Institute of Communications named after Professor M. A. Bonch-Bruevich.
The editor and authors are grateful to the reviewers Prof. V. I. Semishin, Department of Methods of Teaching Chemistry, Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A. I. Herzen (head of the department prof. A. D. Smirnov), as well as prof. Ya. M. Slobodin, Assoc. Ya. M. Veprik, V. E. Mayorova, Ph.D. chem. Sciences. V. I. Artemyev, Honored. RSFSR school teacher K. G. Kolosova for valuable comments on the manuscript.
Please send comments and advice aimed at improving the manual to the Higher School publishing house.
Professor V. V. Razumovsky

PART I
BASIC LAWS and concepts of CHEMISTRY

INTRODUCTION
Physics and chemistry are the basic sciences about the structure and properties of matter. A few decades ago, the great Russian scientist D. I. Mendeleev wrote: “The time is not far off when knowledge of physics and chemistry will be the same sign and means of education as knowledge of the classics was considered a hundred, two hundred years ago. They (physics and chemistry - Auth.) constitute in our time one of the means of success in all branches of knowledge and their applications. These words are justified before our eyes. The commonwealth of the two sciences led to the discovery of the structure of the atom, the creation of nuclear energy, semiconductor technology, to remarkable discoveries in the field of synthetic materials (inorganic - artificial diamonds, semiconductors, etc.; organic - rubbers, plastics, fibers; organoelement - inorganic rubbers, siloxanes, etc. . P.).
The study of chemical phenomena is impossible without basic ideas about the structure of matter (atomic and molecular theory, the theory of the structure of atoms and the theory of chemical bonding). The foundation in the study of the properties of inorganic compounds is the periodic law and the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev, and in the study of the properties of organic compounds - the theory of A. M. Butlerov on the structure of organic compounds. Only a deep understanding of these basic theories of chemistry can lead to a correct understanding of the numerous classes of chemical compounds, to a solid knowledge of their composition, structure and properties.
When repeating chemistry, special attention should be paid not only to revealing the relationship between the elements, but also to identifying the dependence of their properties on the structure and composition. It is impossible to understand the causes of chemical reactions without taking into account the structure of atoms, ions, molecules, radicals, without taking into account the types of chemical bonds in the initial and final substances. An important aspect of the doctrine of a chemical process is the concept of equilibrium and energy of a chemical reaction. The appropriate place is given to the presentation of these issues in the manual.
It is advisable to start preparing for entrance exams in chemistry with an acquaintance with the "Program of entrance examinations for applicants to higher educational institutions of the USSR."
The program consists of two sections: "General Instructions" and "Scope of Requirements". Unfortunately, applicants rarely pay attention to the "General Instructions" section. Meanwhile, its careful consideration will allow you to correctly understand the requirements for applicants for the entrance exam. For example, this section states that in chemistry, the examinee must show a solid knowledge of basic chemical laws, concepts and theories. What does it mean?
During the initial study of the course of inorganic chemistry in high school, the atomic-molecular theory is considered, and then the theory of the structure of the atom and some ideas about the structure of matter. In the light of the theory of the structure of the atom, a number of concepts of the atomic and molecular theory have undergone refinement. These clarifications should be taken into account in the answer.
When repeating the course of inorganic chemistry, it is advisable to pay attention to the development of basic concepts.
The "General Instructions" states that the examinee must show knowledge of the terminology of the subject. Unfortunately, many applicants do not have a good command of terminology. Very often this is explained by inattention, and sometimes by the fact that the terminology is not given due importance, and this is what happens. Not all applicants, for example, clearly know the names (nomenclature) of chemical compounds. At the exam, they are asked to write the formula for potassium sulphide, and the respondents write the formula for potassium sulphate (K2S03) and even potassium sulphate (K2S04).
Further. It is necessary to clearly know what is called an oxidizing agent, a reducing agent. Do not confuse concepts such as the valency of an atom in a compound and the charge of an ion.
For example, in the compound HN03, the valency of the elements is HN03. In solution, this compound dissociates into H1 and NO3 ions. There can be no talk of any N5+ ions. Meanwhile, applicants often say that the N5+ ion can act as an oxidizing agent in this compound.
The examiner must show knowledge of the general characteristics of the most important elements and their main compounds, i.e., clearly describe the position of the element in the system and, based on the patterns studied in high school, show knowledge of the properties of the most important compounds of this element.
It is advisable to build a story about the properties of compounds formed by any element in a certain logical sequence: the position of the element in the system, its electronic configuration, the properties of a simple substance (bond type), the properties of its compounds (bond type).
One of the requirements of the "General Instructions" for applicants is the ability to use the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev within the scope of the program. In this case, we are talking not only about the need to know in detail the structure and properties of the volumes of the elements of the first three periods of the system, but also about the ability to apply knowledge of general laws to describe the properties of those elements, the study of which was not provided for by the secondary school chemistry program. For example, you need to be able to describe the properties of arsenic or tin, write several characteristic compounds of chromium or some other element of an additional subgroup. Of course, this can be done based on knowledge of the properties of known elements.
The candidate must show an understanding of critical chemical manufacturing processes. He is not required to know the details of the apparatus, laboratory techniques, the characteristics of the course of reactions, etc. It is necessary to know the chemical side of production processes, as well as the basic principles on which the implementation and economic efficiency of the most important processes are based.
The second section of the "General Instructions" says that the examinees are required to know those properties of the most important substances on which their use in the national economy is based. Applicants should pay attention to such sections of the textbook on inorganic chemistry as the use of sulfuric acid, the use of hydrochloric acid in the national economy, etc.
And, finally, in the "General Instructions" it is emphasized that the examiner must show the ability to solve qualitative problems in relation to the material specified in the program.
In this manual, the most typical tasks will be considered.

§ 1. ON THE SUBJECT OF CHEMISTRY
In the literature on chemistry, you can find the following definitions of the subject of chemistry:
“Chemistry is the science of chemical elements” (D. I. Mendeleev).
"Chemistry is the science of substances, their transformations and the phenomena that accompany these transformations" (the most common definition of chemistry).
“Chemistry of the 20th century is the science of the synthesis of materials with certain properties” (a definition of chemistry that has been given recently).
It cannot be said that one definition is better, another is worse, one is correct, the other is not. Each of the above definitions is correct, although it emphasizes one advantageous aspect of chemical science.
Pay attention to the second definition and to the sequence in the enumeration of the objects of study.
Substances. Their transformations. The phenomena accompanying these transformations.
The substance itself and its transformations are studied not only by chemistry, but also by other sciences, for example, physics and biology adjacent to chemistry. This means that each of these sciences does not study all and not all transformations of matter. Chemistry is only interested in those transformations in which there is a change in the composition of a substance, leading to a qualitative change in the properties of substances. The melting of ice or the boiling of water is studied by physics, and the interaction of water with sodium or sulfuric acid is studied by chemistry, because in the first case only the aggregate state of the substance changes, but not the composition, and in the second - the initial and final substances differ in composition and properties, not only physical but also chemical.
It is clear that the changes taking place in chemical processes are directly dependent on what elements the interacting substances consist of.
The degree of development of any science is determined by what it gives for practice, whether the discoveries made in it are realized. The 18th century is called the century of steam, the 19th - the century of electricity; by analogy, the 20th century was called the century of atomic energy, synthetic (artificial) materials and the discovery of the secrets of life. Mankind has long sought to master energy resources, and the most tangible successes in this area have been made by physics. The problem of creating a wide range of materials with desired properties arises only in recent decades.
Synthesis of new materials would be impossible without revealing the specific features of the chemistry of each element.
The development of rocket, nuclear, semiconductor technology would be impossible without the creation of new materials.
The third of the above definitions of the subject of chemistry emphasizes precisely this side of its development, which has emerged in recent decades.

§ 2. Significance of chemistry, the role of chemistry in creating the material and technical base of communism
The meaning of chemistry. As human society develops, the ever-increasing role of chemistry in mastering the energy and material resources of nature is manifested. So, along with the mechanical processing of wood and stone, their chemical processing became widespread; smelting metals from ores, chemical synthesis, etc.
From the primitive use of fuel to produce heat, humanity has moved on to a wider use of wood, coal and oil, on the basis of which not only new types of fuel (for example, gaseous), but also a number of other important products have been obtained. In turn, they learned how to convert chemical energy into electrical energy (galvanic applications, batteries, fuel cells). Finally, at the present time there is a wide production of materials with certain, predetermined properties. Active interference of chemistry in the activity of a living organism begins.
The wide industrial use of the achievements of chemistry was possible only at a certain stage in the development of human society, at a certain stage in the development of the productive forces of society. For the implementation of chemical synthesis, chemical processing of materials, appropriate installations and apparatuses, control devices, production automation, sufficient energy capacities, and preliminary preparation of raw materials are necessary.
The role of chemistry in creating the material and technical base of communism. The Program of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, adopted at the 22nd Congress of the CPSU, states that the main economic task of the Party and the Soviet people is to create the material and technical basis of communism within two decades. To create such a base, it is also necessary to widely use chemistry in the national economy.
Academician A.E. Fersman wrote in one of his works: ".... the idea of ​​chemicalization in combination with the idea of ​​electrification is an idea of ​​exceptional importance, because it takes the use of natural resources to a higher level ...".
Chemicalization of the national economy means: 1) the creation of a permanent material base for the implementation and improvement of technological processes; 2) the introduction of chemical methods of processing substances into all branches of industry and everyday life, leading to a fundamental change in the technology and economics of production, living and cultural conditions of life and work of the population; 3) an increase in the quantity and quality of industrial and agricultural products.
As a result of the development of the chemical industry in our country in 1940, the volume of chemical products increased 18 times compared to 1913, and in 1951 our country took second place in the world (after the USA) in terms of the total production of chemical products, and for some indicators (coke, glass, cement) we are in first place. During the years of Soviet power, Soviet scientists developed many important scientific and technological problems. Suffice it to say, for example, that in the USSR, for the first time in the world, synthetic rubber was obtained and the technology for its industrial production was developed, artificial diamonds were obtained, and new materials for space and nuclear technology were created.
The works of A. E. Favorsky and his school on the synthesis of diene hydrocarbons and new polymers based on them, A. N. Nesmeyanov and his school in the field of organoelement compounds, K. A. Andrianov on the synthesis of organosilicon compounds, G. A. Ra - Zuvaev - in the chemistry of free radicals, N. N. Semenova and his school in the field of chemical kinetics, G. N. Flerova with employees in the production of transuranium elements (No. 102, No. 104) played a huge role in the development of domestic and world chemical science, in fulfilling the tasks of communist construction in our country.
The directives of the 23rd Congress of the CPSU provide for a further increase in the rate of development of the chemical and petrochemical industries. Thus, by 1970, it is planned to increase the production of mineral fertilizers, chemical fibers and gas by almost 2 times, and plastics and resins - by almost 3 times.
The modern development of science puts on the queue the solution of a number of complex tasks and problems, such as the problems of oncology, virology, genetics, on the one hand (connection with biology), and. on the other hand, plasma chemistry, elementary particle chemistry, cosmochemistry (connection with physics).

Chapter I
BASIC REPRESENTATIONS OF ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR THEORY. THE MOST IMPORTANT LAWS OF CHEMISTRY

Historically, the study of matter proceeded in successive stages: from the knowledge of the visible, accessible to the sense organs and the simplest instruments, to the penetration into the world of particles and phenomena, the knowledge of which is possible with the help of very sensitive instruments. Even in antiquity, the idea of ​​the atomic structure of matter was expressed. At the beginning of the XIX century. The atomic-molecular hypothesis was developed, according to which all substances consist of molecules, and molecules - of atoms. Atom is the smallest particle of matter.
This knowledge of matter by means of chemistry can be represented schematically as follows:
bodies of nature
chemical compounds - molecules - atoms
An important role in the creation of the foundations of the atomic-molecular theory was played by the studies of metal oxidation reactions carried out in the 18th century. M. V. Lomonosov and A. Lavoisier. They also formulated the law of conservation of mass of reacting substances.
However, the explanation of both this law and other concepts of that time (equivalents), which arose as a result of studying the weight amounts of reacting substances, turned out to be possible in the 19th century. from the positions of Dalton's atomic theory and Avogadro's molecular theory.
The periodic law and the periodic system of chemical elements, discovered by D. I. Mendeleev in 1869, contributed to the “strengthening of atomistic ideas in chemistry. Opening D. II. Mendeleev marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of the theory of the structure of matter, in the disclosure of the complex structure of the atom.
Spectral analysis and the discovery of X-rays, the discovery of inert gases and the phenomena of radioactivity, the determination of the charge and mass of the electron led to the experimental disclosure of the complex structure of atoms.

§ 1. ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR THEORY
Atomic-molecular doctrine is the first doctrine of the structure of matter, developed on the basis of quantitative representations, mainly of two sciences - physics and chemistry. The very name "atomic-molecular science" suggests that the issues of the structure of matter are considered here at the level of atoms and molecules. This doctrine indicates qualitative differences in the composition of matter (molecules and atoms) and gives quantitative characteristics (the weight of atoms and molecules), and for substances in the gaseous state, the volume of a gram-molecule.
According to this doctrine, substances are composed of atoms and molecules. A molecule is more complex than an atom. A molecule of a simple substance consists of atoms of one element, a molecule of a complex substance consists of atoms of different elements.
Molecules are the smallest particles of a substance that retain its composition and chemical properties.
Atoms are the smallest material particles of an element, reflecting its chemical properties in a free state.
At the same time, atoms are constituent parts of molecules, which the latter exchange during chemical reactions.
Briefly, the essence of the atomic-molecular doctrine is as follows:
1. All substances are made up of atoms and molecules.
2. Atoms of different elements differ in weight, size and properties. Molecules of the same substance are the same, molecules of different substances differ in composition, weight, size, physical and chemical properties.
1 In accordance with modern ideas about the structure of matter, based on the doctrine of the types of chemical bonds, the statement that all substances consist of molecules needs to be clarified (see below, p. 98)

Hello.

Can you please tell me the recommended textbooks for admission to a medical university in biology and chemistry?
Before starting to prepare for next year's exams, I would like to decide on the textbooks. I graduated from school a long time ago, I have to prepare from scratch.
Based on what they write on the forums, the tutorials below are most cited.

CHEMISTRY:
one). "The Beginnings of Chemistry. A modern course for applicants to universities. Kuzmenko N.E., Eremin V.V., Popkov V.A.
2). "Manual in chemistry for applicants to universities." Khomchenko G.P.
3). "Chemistry. 8-11 grades.” Rudzitis G.E., Feldman F.G.
four). "Chemistry tutor" Alexander Egorov
5). "Collection of problems and exercises in chemistry." Kuzmenko N.E., Eremin V.V.
6). “Manual in chemistry for applicants to universities. Questions, exercises, tasks. Samples of exam tickets. Puzakov S.A., Popkov V.A.
7). "Problem solving in chemistry." Belavin I.Yu.
eight). "Problem in chemistry. Grade 11." Lyovkin A.N., Kuznetsova N.E.

BIOLOGY:
one). "General Biology: Grades 10-11: A Textbook for General Educational Institutions." Profile level: At 2 pm Ed. Shumny V.K., Dymshits G.M.
2). "Biology full course" In 3 volumes (Anatomy, Botany, Zoology). Bilich G.L., Kryzhanovsky V.A.
3). "Biology. For applicants to universities "Vladimir Yarygin
four). "Biology. General biology" V. B. Zakharov, S. G. Mamontov, N. I. Sonin, E. T. Zakharova
5). "Biology. In 2 volumes Edited by N. V. Chebyshev
6). "Human Anatomy: Textbook: in two books" Sapin M.R., Bilich G.L.
7). "Biology. Anatomy and physiology of man. 8th grade. In-Depth Study.” Sapin M.R., Sivoglazov V.I., Bryksina Z.G.
eight). "Biology for applicants to universities" R. G. Zayats, V. E. Butvilovsky, V. V. Davydov, I. V. Rachkovskaya
9). “Fundamentals of Biology. Full course of a comprehensive secondary school "A. A. Kamensky, N. A. Sokolova, M. A. Valovaya
ten). "Biology. Manual for preparatory departments of medical institutes "N. E. Kovalev, L. D. Shevchuk, O. I. Shchurenko
eleven). “Preparing for the exam in biology” A. G. Lebedev
12). "Biology. Handbook for high school students and university applicants. A complete course of preparation for the final exams "T. L. Bogdanova, E. A. Solodova

Tell me, if it's not difficult, what textbooks are better to buy in order to enter?!
I am very worried that I will waste time on unnecessary books and thereby simply not prepare properly. Help advice. Please!

Sincerely, Alexander Strokin.

Unsubscribe about chemistry.
1 and 5 almost completely repeat each other, but very good. Take 1 - the theory is described in more detail there, the tasks are the same as in 5.
As far as I know, level 2 tasks are not very difficult, easier than level 1.
3 - an ordinary school textbook. If you can handle the theory level of 1, then you can probably do without it.
4 - did not meet. Books with such a name are scary :)
6 - the level is about the same as in 1. A good book.
7 - did not meet.
8 - tasks are simple, but there are a lot of the same type. Good for getting hands on at the level of the school curriculum.

I hope my answer is helpful. Good luck!

Alexander Sergeevich, thanks for the answer! Tell me, what are the best chemistry problem books to buy? Separate for high school or specifically for the exam?
Please write YOUR RECOMMENDED LIST OF TEXTBOOKS IN CHEMISTRY AND PROBLEM (EXERCISES) IN CHEMISTRY. So that I can finally decide. I will be very grateful to you.
Unfortunately, I posted this question on many forums, but no answers yet from anyone. I do not know what to do. Time goes by, I'm afraid not to be in time and I'm marking time.

Zero level! I totally forgot everything. Today I was looking through trial assignments for the USE for 2012, 2011, 2010. in chemistry and biology, so I don't know anything at all. Really felt like a fool! At 5% I only remember the answers. And in biology and chemistry - the same story - zero!
Finished school in 2002. And apparently, upon admission to a university, I will be able to take either the Unified State Examination at the university, or simply Exams, which the same university conducts on its own. One of two, in short. Here I am completely confused. What is the best way to prepare? What is better to take upon admission - the Unified State Examination or the Exam from the university? Is it better to "sharpen" brains under the Unified State Examination or just solve problems and that's it? WHAT TO DO?!

The exam is more understandable and clearly structured, the internal exam is a thing in itself.
But if you forgot everything, then preparing yourself for these subjects is problematic, you need someone to help you, guide you, check the solutions, answer the questions that have arisen, clarify the incorrectness, explain the approaches to the tasks. It is useless to solve chemical problems according to the model, they are very simple, logical, but this logic must be felt.
And I would not leave less than a year to prepare.
Let's say my course of preparation for the exam is divided into 35 big serious topics. So consider))

Alexander, since the level is completely zero, in chemistry I would highly recommend the textbook by E. E. Minchenkov for grades 8 and 9.
http://www.labirint.ru/books/280907/
http://www.labirint.ru/books/280910/
It is very well written. Remember the very basics for the summer, both theories and calculations.

Two years ago, when my adult student after the medical school passed the internal exam in the second medical school, it was almost the same exam, only truncated. There were even tasks from the USE task bank. Now, I don't know.

If you need a textbook, then, of course, Kuzmenko, Eremin.
Tasks of Puzakov and especially Belavin for the exam are too high, waste your time.
Although Puzakov is good, but for other purposes. If you are going to take a profile exam - then yes, take Puzakov, but even better - collections of Competition Problems of Moscow State University.
For the exam, Doronkin's manuals (for parts A and B, and separately part C) and Asanova are best suited. Of course, they have typos and incorrectness, but they are optimal for work.
http://www.labirint.ru/books/351705/ - part C in full
http://www.labirint.ru/books/350553/ - thematic tests, part A and B
http://www.labirint.ru/books/269618/ - organic on topics in the USE structure, a very useful book
http://www.labirint.ru/books/238816/ - general chemistry, also tests and tasks, according to the structure of the exam.

Biology
1) If we talk about textbooks, then you can take:
in botany - Gulenkova, Elenevsky "Biology: botany grade 6"
in zoology - Nikishov, Sharova "Biology: animals 7-8 (or 7th grade)"
in anatomy - Batuev "Biological: man 8 (or 9th grade)"
in General Biology - "General Biology" in two volumes, ed. Borodin
2) Benefits - No. 12 from your list or D.A. Solovkov "USE in biology: practical training"

There is also a manual "Biology. A school course in 100 hours" (E.A. Solodova, T.L. Bogdanova). It was made directly to prepare for the exam. To get a grip on tests in all sections of the school course - collections of tests for grades 6.7.8 and 9 (E.A. Solodova. Test tasks.)

Dear topicstarter, my advice to you is to take Yegorov's book "Tutor in Chemistry" and read from the very beginning, this book completely covers the level of the Unified State Examination, is written intelligibly, with examples and tests, to work out the material, use FIPI tests, of which there are a lot of sales, and these collections are available online.
With all due respect to the textbook of Kuzmenko and Eremin, it is redundant for the USE, especially when you start reading it, you will see that the authors are brought to topics that are unnecessary for the USE. Kuzmenko and Eremin's textbook is indispensable if you enter chemical universities, where you have to take an internal exam in chemistry. If you enter a medical university and, judging by the senior post, the top starter has very little time left and a very weak level, then Kuzmenko-Eremin will not save him, but only sink him. You have to be realistic about your strengths.

A small addition about Egorov. Take exactly the book that was written about in paragraph 4. He also published another one, with the word "ege" in the title. They like to offer it in stores instead of the first one, but many necessary topics are missing there.

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Name: A manual on chemistry for applicants to universities. 2002.

The manual covers all the questions of entrance exams in chemistry. For better assimilation of the chemistry course, some additional information is given. At the end of each chapter, typical tasks with solutions and tasks for independent work are given.

The book is intended for university students. It can also be recommended to teachers of chemistry in preparing students for the final exams for a high school course.

Content
Foreword
Introduction
§ 1. The subject of chemistry
§ 2. The role of chemistry in industry and agriculture.
§ 3. Chemistry and ecology
PART 1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry
§ 1.1. Atomic-molecular doctrine in chemistry
§ 1.2. Chemical elements
§ 1.3. Simple and complex substances. Allotropy
§ 1.4. Relative atomic mass
§ 1.5. Relative molecular weight
§ 1.6. Moth. Molar mass
§ 1.7. Chemical signs, formulas and equations
§ 1.8. Chemical reactions. Reaction classification
§ 1.9. The law of conservation of mass of substances
§ 1.10. The law of constancy of the composition of matter
§ 1.11. gas laws. Avogadro's law. Molar volume of gas
§ 1.12. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 2. Periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev and the structure of atoms
§ 2.1. D. I. Mendeleev's discovery of the periodic law
§ 2.2. Periodic system of elements of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 2.3. Nuclear model of the structure of atoms
§ 2.4. Composition of atomic nuclei. Nuclear reactions
§ 2.5. Modern model of the state of an electron in an atom
§ 2.6. The structure of the electron shells of atoms
§ 2.7. Electronic formulas of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 2.9. The periodic law and the periodic system of elements in the light of the doctrine of the structure of atoms
§ 2.10. Periodic properties of atoms
§ 2.11. The value of the periodic law and the theory of the structure of atoms
§ 2.12. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 3
§ 3.1. covalent bond
§ 3.2. Properties of a covalent bond
§ 3.3. Ionic bond
§ 3.4. Polar and non-polar molecules
§ 3.6. hydrogen bond
§ 3.7. Types of crystal lattices
§ 3.8. Structural formulas
§ 3.9. Oxidation state
§ 3.10. Chemical bond and valency
§ 3.11. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 4 Chemical equilibrium
§ 4.1. The rate of chemical reactions
§ 4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate
§ 4.3. Activation energy
§ 4.4. The concept of catalysis and catalysts
§ 4.5. Irreversible and reversible reactions
§ 4.6. Chemical equilibrium
§ 4.7. Le Chatelier's principle
§ 4.8. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 5. Solutions. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
§ 5.1. Numerical expression of the composition of solutions
§ 5.2. Solubility of substances in water
§ 5.3. Thermal phenomena during dissolution
§ 5.4. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes
§ 5.5. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
§ 5.6. Dissociation mechanism
§ 5.7. Ion hydration
§ 5.8. Dissociations of acids, bases and salts in aqueous solutions
§ 5.9. Degree of dissociation
§5.10. Strong and weak electrolytes
§5.11. Ion exchange reactions
§ 5.12. dissociation of water. pH
§ 5.13. Protolytic theory of acids and bases
§ 5.14. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 6
§ 6.1. oxides
§ 6.2. acids
§ 6.3. Foundations
§ 6.4. salt
§ 6.5. Salt hydrolysis
§ 6.6. Relationship between classes of inorganic compounds
§ 6.7. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 7 Electrolysis
§ 7.1. Theory of redox reactions
§ 7.2. The most important reducing agents and oxidizing agents
§ 7.4. The influence of the environment on the nature of the reactions
§ 7.5. Classification of redox reactions
§ 7.6. The essence of electrolysis
§ 7.7. Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of electrolytes
§ 7.8. Application of electrolysis
§ 7.9. Solution of typical tasks
PART 2. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Chapter 8 Halogens
§ 8.1. General properties of nonmetals
§ 8.2. Hydrogen
§ 8.3. Water
§ 8.4. Heavy water
§ 8.5. General characteristics of the halogen subgroup
§ 8.6. Chlorine
§ 8.7. Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid
§ 8.8. Salts of hydrochloric acid
§ 8.9. Brief information about fluorine, bromine and iodine
Chapter 9
§ 9.1. General characteristics of the oxygen subgroup
§ 9.2. Oxygen and its properties
§ 9.3. Sulfur and its properties
§ 9.4. Hydrogen sulfide and sulfides
§ 9.5. Sulfur oxide (IV). sulfurous acid
§ 9.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulphuric acid
§ 9.7. Properties of sulfuric acid and its practical significance
§ 9.8. Salts of sulfuric acid
Chapter 10
§ 10.1. General characteristics of the nitrogen subgroup
§ 10.2. Nitrogen. Sigma and pi bonds
§ 10.3. Ammonia
§ 10.4. Chemical bases of ammonia production
§ 10.5. ammonium salts
§ 10.7. nitric acid
§ 10.9. Salts of nitric acid
§ 10.10. Phosphorus
§ 10.11. Phosphorus oxides and phosphoric acids
§ 10.12. Mineral fertilizers
Chapter 11
§ 11.1. General characteristics of the carbon subgroup
§ 11.2. Carbon and its properties
§ 11.3. Oxides of carbon. Carbonic acid
§ 11.4. Salts of carbonic acid
§ 11.5. Silicon and its properties
§ 11.6. Silicon(IV) oxide and silicic acid
§ 11.7. The concept of colloidal solutions
§ 11.8. Silicic acid salts
§ 11.9. Obtaining glass and cement
§ 11.10. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 12
§ 12.1. The position of metals in the periodic system of elements of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 12.2. Physical properties of metals
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of metals
§ 12.4. Metals and alloys in engineering
§ 12.5. A range of standard electrode potentials
§ 12.6. The main methods for obtaining metals
§ 12.7. Corrosion of metals
§ 12.8. Corrosion protection
Chapter 13
§ 13.1. General characteristics of the lithium subgroup
§ 13.2. sodium and potassium
§ 13.3. Caustic alkalis
§ 13.4. Salts of sodium and potassium
§ 13.5. General characteristics of the beryllium subgroup
§ 13.6. Calcium
§ 13.7. Calcium oxide and hydroxide
§ 13.8. Calcium salts
§ 13.9. Water hardness and ways to eliminate it
§ 13.10. General characteristics of the boron subgroup
§ 13.11. Aluminum
§ 13.12. aluminum oxide and hydroxide
§ 13.13. The use of aluminum and its alloys
Chapter 14
§ 14.1. General characteristics of the chromium subgroup
§ 14.2. Chromium
§ 14.3. Oxides and hydroxides of chromium
§ 14.4. Chromates and dichromates
§ 14.5. General characteristics of the iron family
§ 14.6. Iron
§ 14.7. Iron compounds
§ 14.8. domain process
§ 14.9. Cast iron and steel
§ 14.10. Solution of typical tasks
PART 3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Chapter 15
§ 15.1. Subject of organic chemistry
§ 15.2. Features of organic compounds
§ 15.3. isomerism
§ 15.4. Theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds A. M. Butlerova
§ 15.5. Homologous series of organic compounds
§ 15.6. Classification of organic compounds
§ 15.7. Types of organic reactions
Chapter 16
§ 16.1. Limit hydrocarbons (alkanes)
§ 16.2. Nomenclature of alkanes and their derivatives
§ 16.3. Chemical properties of methane and its homologues
§ 16.4. Cycloalkanes
§ 16.5. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
§ 16.6. Ethylene and its homologues
§ 16.7. polymerization reactions. Polyethylene
§ 16.8. Acetylene and its homologues
§ 16.9. diene hydrocarbons
§ 16.10. Natural and synthetic rubbers
§16.11. aromatic hydrocarbons (arenas
§ 16.12. Benzene and its homologues
§ 16.13. Oil and its processing
§ 16.14. Natural gases and their uses
§ 16.15. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 17
§ 17.1. Limit alcohols
§ 17.2. Methanol and ethanol
§ 17.3. Ethylene glycol and glycerin
§ 17.4. Phenols
§ 17.5. Aldehydes
§ 17.6. Formaldehyde
§ 17.7. Acetaldehyde
§ 17.8. Polycondensation reactions
§ 17.9. Ketones
§ 17.10. carboxylic acids
§ 17.11. Formic acid
§ 17.12. Acetic acid
§ 17.13. Complex ethers. Esterification and saponification reactions
§ 17.14. Fats
§ 17.15. Soaps and other detergents
§ 17.16. Carbohydrates
§ 17.17. Monosaccharides and disaccharides
§ 17.18. Polysaccharides
§ 17.19. Unsaturated, dibasic and heterofunctional acids
§ 17.20. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 18
§ 18.1. Nitro compounds
§ 18.2. Amines
§ 18.3. Aniline
§ 18.4. Amino acids
§ 18.5. Acid amides
§ 18.6. Squirrels
§ 18.7. Heterocyclic compounds
§ 18.8. Nucleic acids
§ 18.9. Solution of typical tasks
APPS
Subject index.

Discovery of D.I. Mendeleev's periodic law.
The discovery by D. I. Mendeleev of the periodic law and the construction of the periodic system of elements were the result of his long and intense scientific work. The periodic law and the periodic system of elements are the greatest achievement of chemical science, the basis of modern chemistry.

As the main characteristic of an atom in the construction of the periodic system, its atomic mass was taken. In his book Fundamentals of Chemistry, D. I. Mendeleev wrote: “The mass of a substance is just such a property of it, on which all other properties must depend ... Therefore, it is closest or most natural to look for a relationship between the properties and similarities of elements, on the one hand side, and their atomic weights (masses) on the other.

Khomchenko G.P. A manual on chemistry for applicants to universities. - 4th ed., Corrected. and additional, - M., 2002, - 480 p.: ill.
The manual covers all the questions of the admission exam in chemistry. For better assimilation of the chemistry course, some additional information is given. After each chapter, typical tasks with solutions and tasks for independent work are given.
The book is intended for university students. Oia can also be recommended to chemistry teachers when preparing students for the final exams for a high school course.
Content
Foreword
Introduction
§ 1. The subject of chemistry
§ 2. The role of chemistry in industry and agriculture.
§ 3. Chemistry and ecology
PART 1. GENERAL CHEMISTRY.
Chapter 1. Basic concepts and laws of chemistry
§ 1.1. Atomic-molecular doctrine in chemistry
§ 1.2. Chemical elements
§ 1.3. Simple and complex substances. Allotropy
§ 1.4. Relative atomic mass
§ 1.5. Relative molecular weight
§ 1.6. Moth. Molar mass
§ 1.7. Chemical signs, formulas and equations
§ 1.8. Chemical reactions. Reaction classification
§ 1.9. The law of conservation of mass of substances
§ 1.10. The law of constancy of the composition of matter
§1.11. gas laws. Avogadro's law. Molar volume of gas
§ 1.12. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 2. Periodic law of D. I. Mendeleev and the structure of atoms
§ 2.1. D. I. Mendeleev's discovery of the periodic law
§ 2.2. Periodic system of elements of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 2.3. Nuclear model of the structure of atoms
§ 2.4. Composition of atomic nuclei. Nuclear reactions
§ 2.5. Modern model of the state of an electron in an atom
§ 2.6. The structure of the electron shells of atoms
§ 2.7. Electronic formulas of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 2.9. The periodic law and the periodic system of elements in the light of the doctrine of the structure of atoms
§2.10. Periodic properties of atoms
§ 2.11. The value of the periodic law and the theory of the structure of atoms
§2.12. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 3
§ 3.1. covalent bond
§ 3.2. Properties of a covalent bond
§ 3.3. Ionic bond
§ 3.4. Polar and non-polar molecules
§ 3.6. hydrogen bond
§ 3.7. Types of crystal lattices
§ 3.8. Structural formulas
§ 3.9. Oxidation state
§3.10. Chemical bond and valency
§3.11. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 4 Chemical equilibrium
§4.1. The rate of chemical reactions
§4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate
§ 4.3. Activation energy
§ 4.4. The concept of catalysis and catalysts
§ 4.5. Irreversible and reversible reactions
§4.6. Chemical equilibrium
§ 4.7. Le Chatelier's principle
§ 4.8. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 5. Solutions. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
§ 5.1. Numerical expression of the composition of solutions
§ 5.2. Solubility of substances in water
§ 5.3. Thermal phenomena during dissolution
§ 5.4. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes
§ 5.5. Theory of electrolytic dissociation
§ 5.6. Dissociation mechanism
§ 5.7. Ion hydration
§ 5.8. Dissociations of acids, bases and salts in aqueous solutions
§ 5.9. Degree of dissociation
§5.10. Strong and weak electrolytes
§5.11. Ion exchange reactions
§5.12. dissociation of water. pH
§5.13. Protolytic theory of acids and bases
§5.14. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 6
§6.1. oxides
§6.2. acids
§6.3. Foundations
§6.4. salt
§ 6.5. Salt hydrolysis
§ 6.6. Relationship between classes of inorganic compounds
§ 6.7. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 7 Electrolysis
§7.1. Theory of redox reactions
§ 7.2. The most important reducing agents and oxidizing agents
.§7.4. The influence of the environment on the nature of the reactions
§ 7.5. Classification of redox reactions
§ 7.6. The essence of electrolysis
§ 7.7. Electrolysis of aqueous solutions of electrolytes
§ 7.8. Application of electrolysis
§ 7.9. Solution of typical tasks
PART 2. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Chapter 8 Halogens
§8.1. General properties of nonmetals
§8.2. Hydrogen
§ 8.3. Water
§8.4, Heavy water
§ 8.5. General characteristics of the halogen subgroup
§8.6. Chlorine
§ 8.7. Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid
§ 8.8. Salts of hydrochloric acid
§ 8.9. Brief information about fluorine, bromine and iodine
Chapter 9
§9.1. General characteristics of the oxygen subgroup
§ 9.2. Oxygen and its properties
§ 9.3. Sulfur and its properties
§ 9.4. Hydrogen sulfide and sulfides
§ 9.5. Sulfur oxide (IV). sulfurous acid
§9.6. Sulfur(VI) oxide. Sulphuric acid
§ 9.7. Properties of sulfuric acid and its practical significance
§ 9.8. Salts of sulfuric acid
Chapter 10
§ 10.1. General characteristics of the nitrogen subgroup
§ 10.2. Nitrogen. Sigma and pi bonds
§ 10.3. Ammonia

§ 10.4. Chemical bases of ammonia production
§ 10.5. ammonium salts
§ 10.7. nitric acid
§ 10.9. Salts of nitric acid
§ 10.10. Phosphorus
§ 10.11. Phosphorus oxides and phosphoric acids
§ 10.12. Mineral fertilizers
Chapter 11
§ 11.1. General characteristics of the carbon subgroup
§ 11.2. Carbon and its properties
§ 11.3. Oxides of carbon. Carbonic acid
§ 11.4. Salts of carbonic acid
§ 11.5. Silicon and its properties
§ 11.6. Silicon(IV) oxide and silicic acid
§ 11.7. The concept of colloidal solutions
§ 11.8. Silicic acid salts
§ 11.9. Obtaining glass and cement
§ 11.10. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 12, General Properties of Metals
§ 12.1. The position of metals in the periodic system of elements of D. I. Mendeleev
§ 12.2. Physical properties of metals
§ 12.3. Chemical properties of metals
§ 12.4. Metals and alloys in engineering
§ 12.5. A range of standard electrode potentials
§ 12.6. The main methods for obtaining metals
§ 12.7. Corrosion of metals
§ 12.8. Corrosion protection
Chapter 13
§ 13.1. General characteristics of the lithium subgroup
§ 13.2. sodium and potassium
§ 13.3. Caustic alkalis
§ 13.4. Salts of sodium and potassium
§ 13.5. General characteristics of the beryllium subgroup
§ 13.6. Calcium
§ 13.7. Calcium oxide and hydroxide
§ 13.8. Calcium salts
§ 13.9. Water hardness and ways to eliminate it
§ 13.10. General characteristics of the boron subgroup
§ 13.11. Aluminum
§ 13.12. aluminum oxide and hydroxide
§ 13.13. The use of aluminum and its alloys
Chapter 14
§ 14.1. General characteristics of the chromium subgroup
§ 14.2. Chromium
§ 14.3. Oxides and hydroxides of chromium
§ 14.4. Chromates and dichromates
§ 14.5. General characteristics of the iron family
§ 14.6. Iron
§ 14.7. Iron compounds
§ 14.8. domain process
§ 14.9. Cast iron and steel
§ 14.10. Solution of typical tasks
PART 3. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.
Chapter 15
§ 15.1. Subject of organic chemistry
§ 15.2. Features of organic compounds
§ 15.3. isomerism
§ 15.4. Theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds A. M. Butlerova
§ 15.5. Homologous series of organic compounds
§ 15.6. Classification of organic compounds
§ 15.7. Types of organic reactions
Chapter 16
§ 16.1. Limit hydrocarbons (alkanes)
§ 16.2. Nomenclature of alkanes and their derivatives
§ 16.3. Chemical properties of methane and its homologues
§ 16.4. Cycloalkanes
§ 16.5. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
§ 16.6. Ethylene and its homologues
§ 16.7. polymerization reactions. Polyethylene
§ 16.8. Acetylene and its homologues
§ 16.9. diene hydrocarbons
§ 16.10. Natural and synthetic rubbers
§16.11. aromatic hydrocarbons (arenas
§ 16.12. Benzene and its homologues
§ 16.13. Oil and its processing
§ 16.14. Natural gases and their uses
§ 16.15. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 17
§ 17.1. Limit alcohols
§ 17.2. Methanol and ethanol
§ 17.3. Ethylene glycol and glycerin
§ 17.4. Phenols
§ 17.5. Aldehydes
§ 17.6. Formaldehyde
§ 17.7. Acetaldehyde
§ 17.8. Polycondensation reactions
§ 17.9. Ketones
§ 17.10. carboxylic acids
§ 17.11. Formic acid
§ 17.12. Acetic acid
§ 17.13. Complex ethers. Esterification and saponification reactions
§ 17.14. Fats
§ 17.15. Soaps and other detergents
§ 17.16. Carbohydrates
§ 17.17. Monosaccharides and disaccharides
§ 17.18. Polysaccharides
§ 17.19. Unsaturated, dibasic and heterofunctional acids
§ 17.20. Solution of typical tasks
Chapter 18
§ 18.1. Nitro compounds
§ 18.2. Amines
§ 18.3. Aniline
§ 18.4. Amino acids
§ 18.5. Acid amides
§ 18.6. Squirrels
§ 18.7. Heterocyclic compounds
§ 18.8. Nucleic acids
§ 18.9. Solution of typical tasks
APPS
Subject index

• Activities and pedagogical views of Jan Amos Comenius
• The rate constant is calculated by the formula Rate constant value
• Phase diagrams of two-component systems "polymer - solvent" Phase diagrams of two-component systems "polymer - solvent"
• Fine and hyperfine structure of optical spectra
• How to learn chemistry on your own from scratch: effective ways
• Properties and characteristics of alkenes
• Characteristics of a student from the place of internship
• Characteristics for a student who had an internship at an enterprise: writing rules
• Biography of Faraday. Great scientists. Michael Faraday. discovery of electromagnetic rotation
• Modern innovations in education

• Substituents on the benzene ring are divided into two groups Reactions of the benzene ring
• Types of chemical reactions in organic chemistry Electrophilic addition reactions
• Methods for separating heterogeneous mixtures
• Polymethacrylic acid
• General characteristics of the elements of the VI A subgroup Elements 6a of the subgroup
• Theoretical foundations of physics
• Graph theory in chemistry. graph theory. Basic definitions and theorems of graph theory
• Algebra and harmony in chemical applications
• Tests on the course "Ecology and nature management
• WWF Russia Director Igor Chestin: Yakutia is among the leaders I know that you travel a lot… Why do you need this