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"School! What a pleasant and inspiring feeling this simple word evokes. At this word, a pleasant smile and joy arise on the lips and in the hearts.

I involuntarily remember my first teachers ... "

Suleimanov Rafael - 1946 graduate. Metelevsky school of Bashkiria

On the organization of school education in the USSR

School education of Tolya Kostrov began with the 1st grade in 1940 in a rural elementary school in the village of Vorotilovo and ended with the 10th grade of a secondary school in 1950 in the village of Rameshki, Kalinin (Tver) region. Somehow it happened that Tolya was admitted to the first grade at the age when he was not yet eight years old, although at that time the admission rule was still valid at the age of eight years or more.
The organization of school education was carried out in accordance with the principles and guidelines formulated in 1903 in the Program of the RSDLP: free compulsory education for children of both sexes up to 16 years of age; liquidation of class schools and restrictions in education on national grounds; separation of the school from the church; education in the native language. These principles were developed and legally enshrined in the decrees of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted in 1918-1919, which practically were: private schools and teaching in educational institutions of any creed and the performance of religious rites were prohibited; free and joint education of children of both sexes was established; schools are separated from the church, and the church from the state; physical punishment of children has been abolished; given the right to nationalities to teach in schools in their native language; institutions of public preschool education of children have been created.
On December 26, 1919, it was established that the entire population of the country aged 8 to 50 years old, who could not read or write, undertakes to learn to read and write in their native or Russian language (optional).
In 1930, universal compulsory primary education was introduced.
By the Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of August 25, 1932 “On Curricula and Regime in Primary and Secondary Schools”, new subject programs were approved, collective examinations and tests were condemned, the lesson was declared the main form of organizing the educational process, requirements were put forward for the creation and use of stable textbooks.
From the 1932-33 academic year, the seven-year school became a single general education school for the city and the countryside. In the educational process, oddly enough, they began to pay less attention to labor education and polytechnic orientation (at the end of the 30s, labor was removed from the curriculum and programs of a general education school, and school workshops were liquidated). This is apparently explained by the strict orientation of the general education school in these years to the preparation of human resources for vocational and technical educational institutions, in which polytechnic education and labor education should have been a priority.
In 1934, the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR "On the structure of primary and secondary schools in the USSR" defined a unified structure of school education with the continuity of its levels, established: primary school (grades 1-4); incomplete secondary school (grades 5-7); complete secondary school (grades 8-10). The resolution indicated a radical change in the educational work of schools, condemned the method of projects.

– This method appeared at the beginning of the last century (authors - American scientists Dewey and Kilpatrick). Its essence is to teach on an active basis, through the practical activity of the student, focusing on personal interest and the vital relevance of the acquired knowledge. The main thesis of the method: “I know why I need everything that I know. I know where and how I can apply it.” Nowadays, the project method is very popular.

In 1936, the decision of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat for Education” banned pedology, and with it the use of various tests in the study of children. Pedology was declared a pseudoscience.

– Pedology (from Greek παιδός - child and Greek λόγος - science) is a direction in science that aimed to combine the approaches of various sciences (medicine, biology, psychology, pedagogy) to the development of the child. The term is obsolete and currently has only historical significance. The useful scientific results of pedology were adopted by child psychology.

In 1940, a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR "On the establishment of tuition fees in senior classes of secondary schools and in higher educational institutions of the USSR and on changing the procedure for awarding scholarships" was issued, according to which, from September 1, 1940, paid education was introduced in grades 8-10 of secondary schools, technical schools, pedagogical schools, agricultural and other special secondary institutions, as well as higher educational institutions (paid education in the USSR was abolished on May 10, 1956 - the time of N.S. Khrushchev).
In the 1944-45 academic year, the following were introduced: teaching children from the age of 7 (and not from the age of 8, as was the case before); five-point digital grading system; passing the final exams for the 4th and 7th grades; secondary school matriculation exam (ten years); awarding gold and silver medals to distinguished students - graduates of the ten-year period.

–For students in grades 8-10 of secondary schools and other specified institutions, the fee ranged from 150 to 200 rubles a year. Education in universities cost from 300 to 500 rubles a year.

In fairness, it should be said that the structure of the organization of secondary general education (as well as vocational education) was developed in the process of reforms of 1915-16 in tsarist Russia as an integral part of the general education system, which provides for:
1) 3-4 - summer primary education;
2) 4 years of post-primary education (the first four classes of gymnasiums, the course of higher elementary schools or relevant vocational schools);
3) 4 years of complete secondary education (the last classes of gymnasiums or vocational secondary schools);
4) education in higher educational institutions of university or special type;
5) education for adults (implemented especially rapidly after the adoption of the Prohibition in 1914).
In the last ten years of the tsarist government, a “national project” began to be implemented - a program for the construction of “school networks”, in particular, networks of school buildings throughout the country, which ensured the availability of schools for all children of the Empire with a radius of 3 versts (1 verst = 1.0668 km) . By the way, in the forties of the last century, before the Vorotilov seven-year school, where A. Kostrov studied, students from some villages (for example, from the village of Gogolikha, on the way) had to overcome the way to school about 7 kilometers one way.
When creating the Soviet secondary school, one way or another, the experience of reforming the pre-revolutionary Russian secondary school was used. This confirms at least the fact of recognition of the three-stage school and the main tasks solved by the stage schools. The three-stage nature of the school is objectively determined by the three main age stages of a child's development: childhood, adolescence, and adolescence. These stages of development among many peoples are traditionally determined by the three levels of the secondary general education school. Some countries recognize other school systems. Of course, this issue largely depends on the socio-economic prerequisites, the way of life of the people, the views of the ruling political forces on the well-being of their population.
The system of secondary general education of the USSR was the basis for the development of the system of secondary general education of the new Russia. The structures of these systems are successive:

1st stage - primary (grades 1 - 4: this was the case in the USSR, this is how it is now in Russia);
2nd stage - the stage of incomplete secondary education (in the USSR - grades 5-7 (seven years), in Russia - the main secondary school - grades 5-9 (nine years));
3rd stage - senior stage (in the USSR - 8-10 grades (ten years), in Russia - secondary school - 10-11 grades).
The concepts of educational levels included:
The 1st stage ensures the formation of the child's personality, reveals his abilities, forms the desire and ability to learn, helps to acquire strong reading, writing, counting skills, and experience in communicating with peers and elders.
The 2nd stage of education is basic, designed to provide systemic knowledge, skills and abilities necessary to continue secondary general and begin secondary vocational education, the inclusion of the individual in the life of society, as well as the development of his creative qualities, the education of national identity and universal morality.
The 3rd stage ensures the completion of general education training of students on the basis of such a level of knowledge, skills and abilities that indicate the formation of a full and responsible citizen, capable of self-education, self-education, and a harmonious attitude towards the environment.
It should be noted that the state preschool education and training existing in Russia, which is a preparatory stage for the primary education of children, was not practically implemented for rural areas in the USSR. The state announced such an institution only in 1984 .
In the USSR, in accordance with the general state guidelines, the secondary school was supposed to: contribute to the mental, moral, and physical development of the individual; to form in the individual a communist worldview and a humanistic attitude towards working people; to prepare a person for a compulsory working life, for responsibility for the future of the country and human civilization.
Critics of secondary general education in the USSR, who stated that “An inevitable consequence of the transformation of the school into a state, bureaucratic institution was its functioning in the mode of uniformity, like-mindedness and one-man command, realizing the main socio-pedagogical setting of the administrative-command system to form the “cogs” of this system, the school embarked on the path of general averaging of personality. Thus, it deprived not only the personality, but also itself of the ability to develop, which objectively led to the cutting of the intellectual roots of the nation” were, probably, to a large extent right. But it would hardly be correct to extend this statement to the organization of secondary education (school) in the USSR in the thirties and forties of the 20th century. Yes, the political leadership of the country made, as follows from the above, significant mistakes in the field of education and science. Nevertheless, it should be noted that secondary school education in these years became more systemic: compulsory programs for all subjects were introduced with a clearly defined range of necessary knowledge, skills and abilities; a class-lesson organization of training sessions was established; fixed class schedules have been introduced; an individual account of students' knowledge of the verbal system was established (very bad, bad, mediocre, good, excellent); the leading role of the teacher in the classroom is fixed; strengthened management in the educational system. This system with minor changes lasted until the 80s of the 20th century. In essence, A.V. Kostrov.

– See Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR No. 317 of April 12, 1984 “On the further improvement of public preschool education and the preparation of children for schooling”, declaring the expediency of creating “School-Kindergarten” educational institutions in rural areas.
– http://www.bim-bad.ru/docs/conception_of_general_education_1988.pdf

Vorotilov Primary School (1940-1944)

The school was located in an ordinary village house in the village of Vorotilovo, which has survived to this day. Two teachers worked at the school, one of whom taught boys and girls of the 1st and 3rd grades, and the other - boys and girls of the 2nd and 4th grades.

On the photo A.V. Kostrov. May 31, 2015, p. Vorotilovo. Almost 75 years have passed since a student of the 1st grade, Tolya Kostrov, entered this TEMPLE OF KNOWLEDGE, began and graduated from the Vorotilov elementary school in it. Unfortunately, there are no children's photos of those years. Then people did not have an individual interest in capturing important moments of their lives, studies and activities (not before that, and the photographic technique was cumbersome).

The first teacher of Tolya Kostrov, as well as his uncle V.A. Kostrova, was Anna Kondratievna Smirnova (06/24/1898 - 12/14/1986, buried at the Vorotilovsky cemetery). In the year Tolya entered the school, Anna Kondratyevna turned 42 years old. She was a very beautiful woman, an experienced teacher and an excellent educator. Despite the exactingness, the students loved and obeyed her, and the parents of the students deeply respected her.
Anna Kondratievna remained in the memory of many residents of neighboring villages as the first teacher of themselves, their children, and possibly their grandchildren. She had a family, she raised two sons. She lived in the neighboring village of Starozhilka, I remember, on a farm. She walked several kilometers to school along a forest road. Then, after the Great Patriotic War, her family bought a house and moved to the village of Vorotilovo. Within the framework of the right given by the state to the teacher to use the apartment, heating and lighting for free, the local authorities, at best, provided Anna Kondratievna with free firewood and kerosene for lighting (she did not have a state apartment).
In the very first days of the school year, she introduced the first-graders to the "Rules for Students" that hung on the wall of the classroom (they were introduced to them for the second time in the seven-year plan after their official approval on August 2, 1945). It seems that these Rules are very relevant at the present time, so we will present them on this site. Here is their text (quoted from the work of E.N. Medynsky “Enlightenment in the USSR”):

“Each student must:

1. Persistently and persistently acquire knowledge in order to be an educated and cultured citizen and bring as much benefit to the Soviet Motherland as possible.
2. Study diligently, attend classes carefully, do not be late for the start of classes at school.
3. Unquestioningly obey the orders of the school principal and teachers.
4. Come to school with all necessary textbooks and stationery. Before the teacher arrives, prepare everything you need for the lesson.
5. Come to school clean, combed and neatly dressed.
6. Keep your place in the classroom clean and tidy.
7. Immediately after the bell, enter the classroom and take your seat. To enter and leave the classroom during the lesson only with the permission of the teacher.
8. During the lesson, sit straight, without leaning or falling apart; listen carefully to the explanations of the teacher and the answers of the students; Don't talk or do other things.
9. At the entrance to the class of the teacher, the principal of the school and when they leave the class, greet them, getting up from their seats.
10. When answering the teacher, get up, keep straight, sit down only with the permission of the teacher. If you want to answer or ask the teacher a question - raise your hand.
11. Accurately write down in a diary or a special notebook what is given by the teacher for the next lesson, and show this entry to parents. Do all homework yourself.
12. Be respectful with the principal and teachers. When meeting on the street with teachers and the director of the school, greet them with a polite bow, while the boys take off their hats.
13. Be polite to elders, behave modestly and decently at school, on the street and in public places.
14. Do not use swear words and rude expressions, do not smoke. Do not play cards for money and things.
15. Take care of school property. Take care of your belongings and the belongings of your comrades.
16. Be attentive and helpful to the elderly, small children, the weak, the sick, give them way, place, provide all kinds of assistance.
17. Obey parents, help them, take care of little brothers and sisters.
18. Maintain cleanliness in the rooms, keep your clothes, shoes, bedding in order.
19. Have a student card with you, keep it carefully, do not give it to others and present it at the request of the principal and teachers of the school.
20. Treasure the honor of your school and class as if it were your own.
For violation of the rules, the student is subject to punishment, up to and including expulsion from school.
In accordance with the "Curriculum of the Primary School of the RSFSR" in force at that time, the school day included (in each class) 4 lessons (a week - 24 hours). The lesson lasted 45 minutes. Between lessons there were breaks (mainly to have a bite to eat with what the student brought with him - there were no school breakfasts, to go to the toilet, which was located in the hallway of the house). The signal about the beginning and end of the lessons was given by the bell of the school watchman-stoker - as in the movie by Mark Donskoy "The Rural Teacher". Then, after the release of this film on the screens of the country in 1947, there was a feeling of significant similarity between Anna Kondratievna Smirnova and the village teacher Varvara Vasilievna Martynova, whose image was talentedly created by Vera Maretskaya.
The plan mentioned above included training in the following subjects:
1) calligraphy (1st grade);
2) native language and literary reading (for non-Russian nationalities and nationalities);
3) Russian language and literary reading;
4) arithmetic;
5) natural science (now - natural history);
6) history;
7) geography;
8) singing (now - music);
9) drawing (now - fine arts);
10) physical education.
I do not remember that a foreign language was studied at the Vorotilov elementary school. Students who did not master the curriculum were left for a second course of study. Transfer to the next class in the first three classes was made on the basis of annual marks, transfer exams were not held.
In the 40s of the last century, there was no differentiation of education in elementary school, taking into account the inclinations and abilities of children. They studied strictly according to a single program using uniform textbooks. Optional classes in terms of physical, aesthetic and labor education (sports games, music, art work, and others) were not held. Near the school there was not even the simplest sports ground. In essence, the village children did not know what a football, basketball or volleyball was. A sporting entertainment was playing Russian bast shoes, mainly on Easter day (despite the fact that the state was atheistic, this holiday was always celebrated in Christian villages). Probably, it was believed that, physically, peasant children are sufficiently loaded in the daily life of the family all year round. It was said above that Tolya Kostrov, already in the 2nd grade, came to his grandfather at the forge to download furs and help him in blacksmithing. So he really didn't lack the treadmill of country exercise. By the way, this later (both in high school and in a military school) manifested itself with obviousness: he could lift a large load (he had good standing strength), efficiently jump long, run long distances, but was poorly prepared in gymnastics, did not know how to play volleyball, basketball or football. To his peers who play these games well (especially at school), A. Kostrov experienced some envy in a good way.
Tolya's progress and behavior at school was mainly controlled by his mother, his grandfather was rarely interested. Grandmother often asked if Anna Kondratyevna scolded her grandson (she knew her well as the teacher of her son, Vasily). In this regard, I would like to tell you about the case when Tolya and his classmate, neighbor Vasya Zakharov, agreed to go to school barefoot on dewy days in September (without shoes and socks), probably in order to save shoes. Anna Kondratievna immediately noticed this anomaly and said: “You can’t go to school barefoot, tell your parents.” In order not to disturb my mother, I had to inform my grandmother about this, who scolded a little and said: “Tell Anna Kondratievna that this will not happen again, ask for forgiveness!” Grandma's instructions were carried out. But the family analysis of this case still took place.
The family members were very strict about the control of attendance, behavior and academic performance. The following examples have been preserved in memory. After the occupation of the city of Kalinin by the Germans (10/17/1941), a disorganizing mood appeared in some families, including the families of individual classmates of Tolya. The children stopped going to school, although the school continued to operate. Mother and grandfather said that there should not be any indulgence: you will go to school as long as it works (although the family spoke among themselves about a possible evacuation).
I also remember an event: while skiing down a cemetery mountain in the village of Vorotilovo, Tolya twisted his leg and could not go to school. For about two weeks, his grandfather put him in a sled and drove him to school, and at the end of classes he brought him home.
The educational reaction of the mother to the smoking of her son is indicative (no one in the Kostrov family smoked). Returning home one day after school, Tolya and other Koskovsko-Gorsky boys - students of Anna Kondratievna, despite the prohibition of the "Rules", decided to smoke. A neighbor girl, a classmate of Tolya, told his mother about this. After that, he had a very serious talk in the family. The next day, on the way from school, Tolya, in retaliation for snitching, pushed this girl. A real physical punishment followed - the mother, for a long, long memory, flogged her son with reins.
As for performance, there were no problems here. Tolya studied smoothly, getting good and excellent grades (certificates of honor with the image of Lenin and Stalin have been preserved). I do not remember that someone from the Kostrov family was a member of the Parents' Committee of the school. If questions arose, they turned directly to Anna Kondratievna. The Kostrovs took great care of their working time.
Before the end of the 4th grade, Anna Kondratievna interviewed students about continuing their studies at the Vorotilov seven-year school. Almost all the students in the class announced their transition to a seven-year school. It can be said that during these years the clear majority of parents had no doubts about the need for their children to receive a seven-year education.
At the end of the 4th grade, a final exam was held, but I don’t remember that school graduates were awarded certificates of graduation. And the question is whether in those years in the RSFSR there was a single form of a certificate of completion of primary school and whether it was awarded to a graduate.
As shown on the Internet with the certificates of graduation from other primary schools in the RSFSR, the official form of the certificate existed and the following items were entered into it:
1) native language and literary reading (for non-Russian nationalities and nationalities);
2) Russian language and literary reading;
3) arithmetic;
4) natural science;
5) history;
6) geography.
A student of the 4th grade with no more than two unsatisfactory annual marks in the main subjects took the verification transfer exams at the end of the school year. Those who received more than two unsatisfactory marks were left for a second course in the same class. A student who was admitted to the transfer test but had one or two failing grades in the core academic subjects took the transfer test in those subjects in the fall.

– These provisions also applied to students in the 5th, 6th, 8th and 9th grades.

Vorotilov seven-year school (1944-47)

The Vorotilovskaya seven-year school (now the main secondary general education Koskovsko-Gorskaya (Vorotilovskaya)) school was located about a kilometer from the village of Vorotilovo, in a one-story wooden building, one might say, in the forest. Boys and girls from villages studied at the school, the most remote of which were Gogolikha, New, Alyoshino, Ramen. Each of these villages had elementary schools. The distance, for example, from Gogolikha to Vorotilov (by road) was more than 7 kilometers.
After the Great Patriotic War, the post of director of the Vorotilov seven-year school was taken by a participant in the war, a teacher of Russian language and literature, Veselov Ivan Kirillovich, who lived with his family in the village of Vorotilovo in a former priest's house, located directly under the cemetery mountain at the entrance to the village. His daughter Raya studied in the same class as Tolya Kostrov. The Kostrov family knew Ivan Kirillovich well (he taught Vasily Kostrov) and treated him with respect. He was a member of the CPSU (b), very simple in relations with people, in general, he was a real folk teacher. I remember once, right after the war, he went to his grandfather's forge and they talked for a long time on some serious topic.
The seven-year school was an incomplete secondary general education school. Such schools appeared in the early 1920s. Urban seven-year schools were called factory seven-year schools (FZS), rural seven-year schools were called schools for peasant youth, then schools for collective farm youth (ShKM). As mentioned above, in 1934, by a decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR "On the structure of primary and secondary schools in the USSR," 3 types of general education schools were established: primary (grades 1-4), incomplete secondary (grades 1-7 grades) and complete secondary (grades 1-10).

– With the introduction in 1958 of universal compulsory 8-year education, these schools were transformed into eight-year schools.

Education in the seven-year school was free of charge, in contrast to education in the senior (8th - 10th) grades of the full secondary school.
A lot of time has passed since A. Kostrov graduated from the Vorotilov seven-year school. Nevertheless, the interest in getting an answer to the question of what was taught in this school did not disappear. The school leaving certificate, signed by the principal and teachers, lists the following subjects:
Russian language and literary reading;
arithmetic;
algebra;
geometry;
natural science;
history;
the Constitution of the USSR;
geography;
physics;
chemistry;
foreign language (German).

– In 1958, the Constitution of the USSR was excluded from the specified list of subjects, but physical education and labor were included, in 1964 the Russian language was separated from literary reading, drawing and singing were introduced. In 1970, literary reading became known as literature. In 1971, natural science turns into biology. In 1976, arithmetic ceases to exist, but the foundations of the state and law appear. In 1980, singing becomes music, and drawing becomes fine art.

In order to more rigorously systematize ideas about the study of each of these subjects, we had to turn to the above-mentioned work by E.N. Medynsky "Enlightenment in the USSR". It describes the objectives of the study of these subjects.
Russian language and literary reading (grades 5–7): 1) study of a systematic course of grammar, spelling and punctuation; 2) acquaintance with the best examples of Russian literature, pursuing the solution of educational and upbringing tasks: developing in students a socialist attitude to work, instilling love for the motherland and their people, forming a sense of friendship and camaraderie.
The literature reading was a kind of introduction to the course in the history of literature, studied in the 8th-10th grades. It (reading) introduced students to the necessary works, provided information for analyzing their content, and allowed them to acquire the skills of a cultural presentation of their thoughts.
Arithmetic was studied more systematically than in elementary school (it ended in the 6th grade): actions with integers were repeated, ordinary and decimal fractions, percentages, proportions were studied. Improvement of calculation skills by students was envisaged.
Algebra was studied in the 6th and 7th grades, its course continued in the 8th-10th grades.
Geometry began, like algebra, in the 6th grade, continued in the 7th and ended in the 10th grade.
Natural science, which began in the 4th grade in the form of an introductory compressed course of inanimate nature, was studied more fully in the seven-year school: botany was studied in the 5th grade and the first half of the 6th grade; in the second half of the 6th grade and in the 7th grade - zoology.
It was believed that knowledge on this subject is necessary for the development of a materialistic worldview, for agriculture - crop production, animal husbandry, poultry farming, pest control. I remember that in the lessons of natural science, observations were made with a microscope, they worked at the school's educational and experimental site, went out into nature, collective farm fields.
The story began with the 5th grade: after a brief introduction to the life of primitive people, the ancient East, ancient Greece and ancient Rome were studied. In the 6th and 7th grades, the history of the Middle Ages (before the English bourgeois revolution of 1648) was studied.
The study of history was supposed to give concrete ideas about the emergence and development of each social system. It required knowledge of historical facts, historical patterns and prominent figures. The history course led students to a Marxist-Leninist understanding of history. The idea of ​​the progressive development of human society, the inevitability of the death of the old and the victory of a new, more advanced system, was carried through the entire curriculum of this subject.
This idea was clearly indicated in the study of the decomposition of the slave system and its replacement in the Middle Ages by the feudal system, which, with the development of capitalism, is replaced by the capitalist system.
The history course introduced the liberation struggle of the peoples against colonialism and gave ideas about just and unjust wars.
The Constitution of the USSR was studied in the 7th grade. Students received information about the state structure of the USSR, that the Soviet system in the USSR is the highest form of democracy, about the enormous leading role of the Communist Party as the "leading core" of state and public organizations. This course was designed to convince that the great victories of the USSR were possible because our country is socialist; those rights of citizens, which are mentioned in the Constitution, are rights exercised in practice. This course introduced the great achievements of the Soviet people, which are possible only in a country which, having completed the building of a socialist society, is passing over to communism.
The geography course began in the 5th grade with physical geography; and in the 6th grade he devoted himself to a physical and geographical survey of parts of the world: Europe, Asia, America, Africa, Australia. The students were introduced to the political map of the world. In the 7th grade, the physical geography of the USSR was studied along with a brief overview of the country's economy. This course was supposed to contribute to the formation of a materialistic worldview (a course in physical geography); give specific information about the parts of the world and the states located in them; to acquaint students with the physical geography of the USSR and, while taking this course, pay special attention to such facts that can serve as an object of our national pride - the vast expanses of our motherland, its natural resources used in the interests of building socialism. Summarizing, we can say that the geography course in the seven-year school was designed to give students an ideological and political development and lead them to a correct understanding of the course of economic geography studied in the 8th grade of secondary school.
Physics began in the 6th grade with the initial knowledge of mechanics. In the 7th grade, students received elementary knowledge in the sections: heat, electricity. The physics course was focused on polytechnic education, therefore, from the very beginning, attempts were made to conduct a wide range of simple, but related to the technology of the surrounding life (heating, lighting, ventilation, plumbing, radio, and others) laboratory work. These were very exciting activities.
Chemistry began in the 7th grade with the study of the laws and basic chemical concepts (substance, element, atomic and molecular theory, oxides, acids, salts, the law of conservation of weight, the law of constancy of composition). Oxygen, hydrogen, water and air were briefly studied. Theoretical provisions in some cases were accompanied by a demonstration of experiments and independent performance of practical work by students. The teaching of chemistry served the purposes of communist education, contributed to the formation of a materialistic worldview and polytechnic education in students.
A foreign language was studied from the 5th to the 7th grade. Studied one foreign (German) language. Now it is difficult to say what was required, in terms of knowledge of the language, from a graduate of a seven-year school. More fully about the requirements for knowledge of a foreign language will be discussed in the section "Secondary School".
It should be noted that one teacher could teach several subjects, for example, arithmetic, algebra, physics; or in history, constitution, foreign language; or biology, chemistry and geography.
In the 5th and 6th grades, transfers were held, and in the 7th - final exams. Transfer examinations were conducted by the teacher of the relevant subject in the presence of an assistant appointed by the headmaster from among the teachers of the same or related subject. The final examinations were conducted by a commission consisting of: the headmaster or his deputy in charge of education (chairman), the teacher who teaches the subject, and an assistant appointed by the headmaster.
Final exams were held in the Russian language (written and oral), algebra (written), geography (oral).

– The texts of dictations, topics of essays in literature, tasks and examples for written work in mathematics, as well as tickets for oral translation exams were compiled by teachers of the relevant subjects and approved by the ministries of education of the Union republics.

A student was considered to have graduated from: a school (elementary or seven-year) and received a certificate of this only if he had, in all the main subjects of the curriculum, regardless of the marks in singing, drawing, drawing and military physical training, the final marks were not lower than satisfactory, and behavior is excellent.

Illuminated universal sports ground on the territory of the Koskovsko-Gorsk school. In the Vorotilov seven-year school, during the years of A. Kostrov's studies in it, there was no such platform. May 31, 2015

As follows from the above requirements for the behavior of a graduate student, the task of instilling discipline in students was one of the most important in the seven-year school (in general, the same as in primary and secondary schools). The main method of instilling discipline in the school was persuasion, the manifestation of the consciousness of students, the implementation of coordinated actions of the school and the family in the process of education. Pioneer and Komsomol organizations played a useful role in this matter. Until the 7th grade, Tolya Kostrov wore a pioneer tie, and in the 7th grade he became a Komsomol member who took an active part in the work of a small school Komsomol organization, including maintaining discipline. The school practiced encouragement of the best students of study and behavior (praise of the teacher, gratitude of the director, award of a letter of commendation) and punishment of violators of the discipline of behavior and academic discipline (reprimand of the teacher, reprimand in front of the class, removal from the class from the lesson, leaving after the lessons to do homework or classroom assignment, a summons for suggestion to the pedagogical council, a reprimand announced by the order of the school director, a decrease in the mark for behavior, transfer to another class or to another school, expulsion from school).
To guide the educational work of students in each class, starting from the 5th, the headmaster appointed a class teacher from the teachers of this class. The class teacher drew up a plan for his educational work for each quarter, which was approved by the director.
A certificate of completion of a seven-year school gave the right to enter the 8th grade of a secondary school without an exam or to a secondary vocational educational institution - to technical schools that train technicians and assistants to agronomists, to pedagogical schools that train elementary school teachers, to medical schools and others. In secondary vocational schools, those who graduated from a seven-year school were admitted according to entrance exams, and those who graduated with honors - without an exam.

Koskovskaya Gorka, May 31, 2015. A conversation with A.V. Kostrova with students of the Koskovsko-Gorsk school. To the question: "Do you have Internet?" The students answered: "Yes." Grandfather (A.V.) was very happy. During his school years, there was no radio or telephone in the village.

After the end of the seven-year plan, the question arose of which direction to choose to continue further studies: either to enter a secondary general education school, or to a secondary vocational educational institution. The arguments of the grandfather and mother were convincing - it was decided to continue their education at the Rameshkovsky secondary school. By the way, it should be said that together with A. Kostrov, the guys from Koskovskaya Gorka graduated from the Vorotilov seven-year school, with whom he studied, starting from the 1st grade: Alexander Vasiliev, Valentin Zhukov, Vasily Zakharov, Maria Petrova. Their fates turned out differently: A. Vasiliev and V. Zhukov joined the working class and died under tragic domestic circumstances at a relatively young age, V. Zakharov graduated from an industrial technical school in Kalinin (Tver) and continued to work at the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant (being passing through Moscow, stayed with A. Kostrov, and we spent long evenings reminiscing about our childhood and transitional years of village life), M. Petrova entered the Rameshkovsky secondary school.

Rameshkovskaya secondary school (1947-50)

The history of the Rameshkovskaya secondary school is described on the Internet on the website at the link. It received the status of a secondary school in the 1936-37 academic year. At that time, there were about two dozen classes (more than seven hundred students), the teaching staff consisted of 28 teachers. In 1937, the school graduated from the 10th grade for the first time: 14 people, many of whom later became teachers, and Vasily Semyonovich Smirnov (after the war) became the director of this school. Many graduates of this group, including V.S. Smirnov, participated in the Great Patriotic War, some of them died in battle. Many high school students were part of the fighter battalion operating in the area. In the first years of the war, the premises of the school were repeatedly occupied as a hospital, and studies continued in various rooms.
After the war, there was an acute shortage of school space. The school worked in two shifts. Enrolling in the 8th grade of this school in 1947, A. Kostrov began to study in a two-story building on the central Sovetskaya street, which was being built under the Collective Farmer's House. This building remained the main building until 1950, when the school received a two-story wooden building in Pervomaisky Lane, which was rebuilt by the entire district on the initiative of the district committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks. Rameshki. This building does not currently exist. The first fire in it broke out in the spring of 1950, the second - in 1953. In 1963, a brick building (for more than six hundred seats) was built for the school, which housed classes from the fourth to the tenth.

In 1950, A. Kostrov continued his studies in the 10th grade at this new school

This is what the brick school building looks like now. May 31 (Sunday), 2015 - A.V. Bonfires near this building (built in the early sixties (1963). 65 years have passed since the end of this school, but the feeling of gratitude to the teachers of the school remained deeply honored and cherished.

It cannot be said that after submitting an application for admission to the school, A. Kostrov was immediately called upon to become registered at the Komsomol school. As it turned out later, many students of the 8th-10th grades of the school were in it. In fairness, it should be recognized that A. Kostrov could not become an active Komsomol member in it because after a short time he began to perceive it as an organization for collecting membership fees, although its secretary E. Lashkov, the son of a regional Soviet official, was demonstratively handsome and dynamic in sports. His subsequent fate is unknown.
In 1950, A. Kostrov continued his studies in the 10th grade at this new school.
There were about 20 students in the 8th grade in 1947. Classmates remained in my memory (the educational institutions in which they entered after graduating from the Rameshkov school are indicated):
Andrianov Nikolai (from the village of Rameshki) - Military School of Special Communications (Rostov-on-Don);
Arsenyeva Serafima (from the village of Rameshki) - Kalinin State Pedagogical Institute;
Gerasimov Anatoly (from the village of Denesyevo) - Naval Aviation Technical School (Molotov (now Perm));
Gerasimov Gennady (from the village of Kadnoye) - Moscow Institute of Chemical Technology;
Gostev Viktor (from the village of Rameshki) - Naval Aviation Pilot School (Nikolaev);
Dementieva Antonina (from the village of Daleki) - Kalinin Pedagogical Institute;
Kulkov Alexey (from the village of Vysokovo) - Higher Naval School of Communications (Petrodvorets);
Matveev Anatoly (from the village of Rameshki) - Leningrad Institute of Agricultural Mechanization;
Nevsky Victor (from the village of Selishche) - Kalinin Pedagogical Institute;
Orlov Boris (from the village of Rameshki) - Leningrad Institute of Finance and Economics;
Solovyov Pyotr (from the village of Denesyevo) - Higher Naval School of Communications (Petrodvorets);
Sorokina Antonina (from the village of Khromtsovo) - Leningrad Agricultural Institute.
All of them graduated from the Rameshkovsky secondary school in 1950, after graduation, A. Kostrov met with some of them, corresponded with others.
Classes in secondary school, as well as in elementary and seven-year schools, were conducted according to the class-lesson scheme, a solid weekly schedule of lessons drawn up for the academic quarter. There was the same 45-minute lesson duration. Practically all teachers used the same method of conducting the lesson: oral presentation of the educational topic (story, explanation, problem setting); independent work of students with a textbook; written and graphic works of students; demonstration of phenomena and illustration of events by the teacher; laboratory and practical classes. During the lesson, the teacher often checked the completion of homework and students' knowledge, making sure that what they had learned was consolidated. Much attention was paid to the repetition and consolidation of what was passed in secondary school, especially since the 1944-45 academic year, when by the decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR of June 21, 1944 and the Council of Ministers of the USSR of February 21, 1950, final exams were introduced at a seven-year school and examinations for a certificate maturity in high school. Repetition before the final exams in the seven-year and high school was carried out in the subjects submitted for examinations. At the end of the academic year, a fairly large number of teaching hours were allocated for this.
In the 8th-10th grades, the Russian language, literature, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, natural science, history of the USSR, general history, the Constitution of the USSR, geography, physics, astronomy, chemistry, a foreign language (German) were studied. Initial military training (NVP) was carried out. As follows from this list, in comparison with the subjects of the seven-year school, trigonometry, general history, and astronomy were added here. Curricula in these subjects provided for the implementation of the principle of dialectical development in the knowledge of the student of the relevant subject.
Literature studied in its historical development. The student had to have an idea about the place and significance of fiction in the life of society, about the nationality and patriotism of literature, about its role in the liberation struggle of peoples. It was required to be able to understand the ideological essence of a literary work, its composition, plot, images, language; know the main periods in the development of literature and the main literary trends: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, socialist realism.
In the 8th grade, the study of Russian literature began with the works of ancient times - the chronicle "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" and ended with the first third of the 19th century. - works by A.S. Griboedova, I.A. Krylova, A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, M.V. Gogol.
In the 9th grade, they studied V.G. Belinsky and literature of the second half of the 19th century, got acquainted with the literary trends of the early 20th century, studied individual works by W. Shakespeare and I. Goethe.
In the 10th grade, they studied the pre-revolutionary and Soviet works of A.M. Gorky, as well as works by Soviet authors - V.V. Mayakovsky, M.A. Sholokhov, A.N. Tolstoy, A.A. Fadeev, works of authors of non-Russian peoples of the USSR.
Comprehension of this subject for A. Kostrov presented considerable difficulties and at first it was difficult to get satisfactory grades. Help was needed, but there was no one to turn to. I had to "storm" to read the works provided for by the curriculum. After the 8th grade, confidence began to appear when answering at the blackboard and writing essays. At the matriculation exam, A. Kostrov received a “good” mark in literature. Subsequently, at the entrance exams to educational institutions, this assessment was steadily confirmed.
Maths. In grades 8–10, they studied algebra and geometry, and in grades 9–10, trigonometry. The state strategy of polytechnic general education determined the increased requirements for the mathematical preparation of students. Over the course of all three years (and even starting from the first grade), the weekly number of hours of mathematics classes was steadily maintained. Mathematics was considered a cognitive complex subject, a supporting apparatus in revealing the patterns of the world. The ideologists of polytechnic education, supported by the party leadership of the country, attached great importance to the connection between teaching the theoretical foundations of mathematics and practice (especially technology). And although mathematics has always been an abstract science, in the classroom, as a rule, they solved problems that have practical meaning. Elements of higher mathematics - analytical geometry and mathematical analysis (the concepts of "derivative" and "integral") were absent in the curricula of the 10-year school.
A. Kostrov was imbued with respect for mathematics as early as at the seven-year school and continued to take the fulfillment of assignments in mathematics seriously in high school. It should be noted that in those years, as it is currently observed, the mathematical competitiveness of students was not practiced: Olympiads and mathematical competitions for students in grades 8-10 were not held in rural schools. Therefore, I had to strain my mind in solving complicated tasks that were occasionally received from the teacher - M. Burkova for "home entertainment". Matriculation exams in mathematics - in all three subjects - A. Kostrov passed with "excellent" marks. Subsequently, when entering educational institutions, there were no problems with mathematics.
natural science(subject recorded in A. Kostrov's certificate of maturity). As far as we know, as a science and as a subject of study, natural science has undergone great transformations. It is still not clear what was the main subject of study at school in the framework of the natural science curriculum. It seems that for that time it was possible to safely replace the very voluminous and vague subject “natural science” with a more structured subject called “biology”, which combines botany, zoology, anatomy and human physiology. And in this part, as mentioned above, in the 5th grade and the first half of the 6th grade, botany was studied, in the second half of the 6th grade and in the 7th grade - zoology, in the 8th grade human anatomy and physiology were studied , and in the 9th grade - the foundations of Darwinism, which by no means contradicted the methodological provisions of general biology. Since 1949, the teaching of human anatomy and physiology began to rely on the followers of Darwin's teachings: in the field of psychophysiology, on the teachings of the Russian physiologist IP Pavlov; in the field of botany - on the teachings of I.V. Michurin, in the 40s - early 50s, "developed" by T.D. Lysenko, a pogromist of genetics.
The course of natural science, according to the plan of the political leadership of the country, in the Soviet school was supposed to be one of the most important subjects that develop the materialistic worldview of students. As a result, it turned out to be a highly politicized subject.

– After the reforms in the 50s of the 20th century (USSR), general natural science, as an independent subject, was preserved only in the 4th grade curriculum. By the mid-60s, natural science and geography were combined into natural history, and this discipline was introduced into the programs of the 2nd and 3rd grades. In the early 90s (RF) a new natural history program was approved for a 4-year elementary school. This program defined as one of the main goals - environmental education and upbringing of schoolchildren.

History. In the 8th - 9th grades, the history of the new time was studied, in the 8th-10th grades - the history of the USSR. In the study of history, the limitations of bourgeois revolutions were explained in comparison with the socialist revolution.
The course of history was supposed to contribute to: the development of love for the socialist Motherland, the inculcation of feelings of pride in the heroic past of the Russian people; knowledge of the enormous achievements of the USSR in the field of political life, state structure, development of the national economy and culture; the formation of ideas about the USSR as a country leading the movement of all countries for peace. History has been, and still is, an arena of struggle for ideological direction in understanding and interpreting past events.
Geography. In the 8th grade, the economic geography of foreign countries was studied, and in the 9th grade, the economic geography of the USSR. As a result of studying these courses, students should have become convinced of the enormous advantages of a socialist economy. For polytechnic education, a course in the economic geography of the USSR should have been of great importance, introducing students to the rich natural resources of the USSR, their distribution throughout the country, and the geography of industry, agriculture and transport. The geography course was supposed to leave the student with an idea of ​​the enormous economic possibilities of the USSR.
Physics. In the 8th - 10th grades, one might say, a systematic course of physics was studied, including classical mechanics (kinematics, dynamics and statics), the theory of heat, molecular physics, electricity, optics, acoustics, and information about the structure of the atom.
I remember that a large number of laboratory work was carried out at physics lessons, much more than it was at the seven-year school. Despite the fact that physics teacher Vasily Semyonovich Smirnov was the director of the school, laboratory work was always carried out under his direct supervision. At that time, physics was considered a particularly important subject in the system of polytechnic education for students.
The knowledge and skills in physics acquired at school were later required by A. Kostrov both when mastering flying at a military school, and when they were significantly expanded in the process of professional formation of a ballistic engineer of the Strategic Missile Forces at a military academy.
Astronomy. In the 10th grade, a short course was studied (about 30 hours of study), which gives basic information about the movement and structure of celestial bodies. By and large, astronomy is a worldview science. Therefore, it was studied in the last grade of secondary school in order to summarize the existing knowledge of a person about the structure of the Universe, to interest (as opposed to religion) in the knowledge of the laws of the universe. Starting to study at the Academy named after F.E. Dzerzhinsky at the Department of Ballistics, the course "Theory of Spacecraft Flight", the listener A. Kostrov was pleasantly surprised that the introductory lecture on this course began with a mention of the three laws of the great astronomer Johannes Kepler, which the astronomy teacher Vasily Semyonovich Smirnov spoke about in class.

–Currently, astronomy, as a separate subject, unfortunately, is not studied in high school.

Chemistry. In the 8th - 10th grades, inorganic chemistry was studied, some information was given on organic chemistry. In these classes, students had to be able to use chemical formulas and have skills in setting up a chemical experiment, be able to handle chemical glassware, burners and other devices.
Chemistry was considered as one of the main subjects of polytechnic school education for students.
A. Kostrov studied this subject with interest, in the certificate of maturity in chemistry - the mark is "excellent". Subsequently, the acquired knowledge was required mainly for admission to educational institutions. Professional training was associated with an in-depth study of mathematics, mechanics, aerodynamics and control theory.
Foreign language. Studied one language (German). It can be said that the study continued from the 5th to the 10th grade inclusive. According to E.N. Medynsky “Enlightenment in the USSR”, the task was to, after graduating from high school: 1) learn to read fluently with correct pronunciation and intonation and complete understanding of what was read; 2) understand foreign speech, be able to correctly answer questions and ask questions within the range of topics covered; 3) be able to retell the content of the read text; 4) be able to translate an unfamiliar text of medium difficulty from a foreign language (with minimal use of a dictionary); 5) be able to express their thoughts in writing and write spelling correctly within the limits of the passed lexical material and the passed grammar rules. It is doubtful that the average (not outstanding) graduate of the 10th grade of those years met the specified requirements. It should be said that A. Kostrov approached the specified requirements after he studied in this subject for 4 semesters with a highly qualified teacher at the Red Banner Air Force Academy (KVVA).
basic military training(in the matriculation certificate as an academic subject is not indicated). NVP in the 8th-10th grades was carried out under the active guidance of Alexei Grigorievich Kudryashov, a participant in the Great Patriotic War. The textbook "Basic military training of students in grades 5, 6, 7 of incomplete secondary and secondary schools" was used. -M.: Military Publishing House, 1940, 204 p. (You can see the tutorial here).

5 years after the Second World War - 1950, 10th grade, drill review, Victory Day, settlement. Rameshki. School principal Smirnov Vasily Semyonovich, teacher of NVP Kudryashov Alexei Grigorievich - participants in the Second World War. Kostrov A.V. - 1 line, second from the left.

As part of the NVP program, physical training was carried out according to the schedule. In the winter months, A. Kostrov went skiing to his mother and grandfather on Saturday evenings, and back to school on Monday nights with a gun over his shoulders and a bag of books. These 14 km ski trips provided enough exercise for a week and also served as training for the ski competition. In "non-skiing" times, such trips were made on foot, and in the spring and autumn months, daily by bike.

In accordance with the Instructions on conducting matriculation examinations, approved by the People's Commissar of Education of the RSFSR on October 9, 1944, matriculation examinations were held by the commission from May 25 to June 20 to:
o Russian language and literature - written and oral;
o mathematics (algebra - oral, geometry with trigonometry - written);
o physics, chemistry, history of the USSR (for the course of 8th-10th grades) - oral.
The commission included: the director of the school (chairman of the commission), the teacher of the subject in which the examination was conducted, 2-3 members from among the teachers of the senior classes of the same or related subject.
Topics for essays and tasks for written exams in mathematics were drawn up by the ministries of education of the Union republics and sent to schools in sealed packages.
The packages were opened by the headmaster in the classroom in the presence of members of the examination committee and students before the start of the exams. Tickets for oral examinations were also drawn up by the ministries of education.
The above Instruction determined the requirements for examination papers and students' answers in the examinations for the matriculation certificate for each academic subject.
In the Russian language and literature, the student had to find on:
- in written examinations, the correct understanding of the topic, the ability to express one's thoughts clearly, consistently, in the correct language and competently;
- oral exams - knowledge of grammar, the ability to conduct a grammatical analysis, an understanding of the historical development of Russian literature, knowledge of the main literary works, biographies of the largest Russian writers, the features of their artistic creativity, knowledge of the main issues of literary theory.
In mathematics, it was necessary to show on:
- written exams - the ability to solve problems, the content of which may affect any sections of the secondary school curriculum, with a detailed explanation and justification of the solution plan, solid skills in the rational and correct production of calculations and transformations;
- oral exams - knowledge of the laws and rules of arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry within the program of the entire secondary school course and understanding the logical connection between them, the ability to prove theorems and apply them to solving problems, the ability to quickly and correctly perform oral calculations.
In general, at the examinations for the matriculation certificate, the commission checked the completeness and firmness of the knowledge of the examinee, his development, independence of judgment and the ability to connect knowledge with life, theory with practice.
A student who graduated from high school received a matriculation certificate. The one who had an "excellent" mark in the main subjects of secondary school and in behavior was awarded a gold medal. The silver medal was awarded to students who, with excellent behavior, had an “excellent” mark in their native language, but no more than three “good” marks in other subjects.

– A. Kostrov does not remember the cases when graduates of the Rameshkovskaya secondary school received medals.

Those who were not admitted to this matriculation exam or who did not pass it were not left for the second year, but received a certificate indicating the final grades in the subjects passed at school. He was given the right to take the matriculation exams at the same school a year later.

–There were no such cases in 1950 either.

–In fairness, it must be said that the old gymnasium was significantly different from the Soviet general education school, although it was also an educational institution of the middle level (see History of Pedagogy in Russia: reader / compiled by S. F. Egorov. - M .: Publishing Center " Academy ”, 2002, as well as an excellent monograph - Loginova O. A., Loginov O. N. The educational process in the gymnasiums of pre-revolutionary Russia (on the example of the gymnasiums of the Penza province) .. Penz: PSU Publishing House, 2009).

The book is abbreviated.

Historically, along with the term pedagogy, the term didactics (didaktikos - instructing) was also used in the same sense for a long time. In the first works on didactics, all questions of education and upbringing of a person were considered.
The "Great Didactics" of Jan Amos Comenius also included issues of education. As pedagogy develops, didactics begins to focus on issues of education and learning.
A significant contribution to the development of didactics abroad, following Comenius, was made by the great Swiss teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827), who devoted his whole life to raising children from the people and developing didactics and methods of primary education. Pestalozzi was the first to try to combine education in elementary school with labor and to give a scientific justification for the ways of such education.
The outstanding German democratic teacher Adolf Diesterweg (1790-1866) created the didactics of developmental education, developed and implemented a system for preparing a teacher capable of creative activity.
K. D. Ushinsky gave a deep psychological justification for many issues of education. He thoroughly developed the didactics of the Russian folk school, embodied his didactic views in textbooks for elementary school. It can be said without exaggeration that the entire didactics of the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries developed under the influence of the ideas of K. D. Ushinsky. Great was the significance of his views for school practice.
From the first years of the organization of the Soviet school, a new, Soviet didactics began to take shape. It was called upon to determine the content of education, its methods and organization, taking into account the goals of communist education. This work was headed by N. K. Krupskaya. She developed the issues of building school programs and recommendations on the direction of teaching all academic subjects without exception. N. K. Krupskaya studied the questions of polytechnical education and the connection between education and work in the Soviet school with particular depth and thoroughness. She did a lot to ensure that the Soviet school became a labor and polytechnic school. Under the direct supervision of N. K. Krupskaya, scientific and experimental work was carried out to create a new education system. S. T. Shatsky, M. M. Pistrak and other teachers.
Modern Soviet didactics is considered as a part of pedagogy that studies education and training. She focuses her attention on the study of the learning process. It is considered by didactics as the unity of the following components determined by the goal of education:
content of education;
methods and organizational forms of training;
activities of the teacher, or teaching;
student activities, or teaching;
material teaching aids (textbooks, teaching aids, technical devices, etc.).
Didactics considers its main task to reveal the general patterns of the learning process and their manifestations, as well as to find common and particular ways of conscious control of the educational process.
Didactics takes into account not only general, but also specific features of education for each subject. They are studied by private didactics, or teaching methods.
Modern Soviet didactics is developing intensively, extensive didactic experiments are being carried out, and the creativity of teachers and pedagogical collectives is being encouraged in every possible way. The unity of scientific research and the mass creativity of teachers is the key to the successful development of didactics, the solution of problems put forward by life.

THE CONCEPT OF THE CONTENT OF EDUCATION

“Live and learn,” says a popular proverb. She calls a person to constantly improve their knowledge, their education. An educated person is always admired by others. A. V. Lunacharsky compared an educated person with a good connoisseur of music. Such a person, he said, hears the whole concert that is played around him, all sounds are available to him, they all merge into one common harmony, which we call human culture. And at the same time, he himself plays a certain instrument, plays well and makes his valuable contribution to the general wealth. Lunacharsky persistently emphasized that genuine education is possible only when a person knows a lot in general, in summary, but has his own specialty in which he would work in depth, with the creative exertion of individual forces and the blood of his heart, the juice of his brain created really important acquisitions for humanity. But such education is the work of a person's whole life. The school provides the keys to this education.
What is commonly understood by the content of education in the Soviet school?
The content of education is a precisely defined body of knowledge, skills and abilities, which are the basis for the comprehensive development of students and the formation of a dialectical-materialistic worldview in them.
The term knowledge is understood as an integral system of scientific concepts about the laws of development of nature, society and thinking, accumulated by mankind in the process of active transformative activity and aimed at further knowledge and change of the objective world. The foundations of knowledge necessary for the younger generation to join the life of society and further improve knowledge in life form the foundation of the content of education.
Skills - the ability of a person to perform any actions (activities) based on previously gained experience. Skills are closely related to skills.
Skills are established ways of doing things. A person who has mastered this or that skill works as if automatically, and it is very difficult to notice the control of consciousness in the course of performing an action. Knowledge, skills and abilities make up the experience of the individual and are combined in it in a peculiar way. Most skills include knowledge, are formed on their basis, and are enriched through the use of a variety of skills. Therefore, any opposition of the most important components of experience, exaggeration or underestimation of the significance of some of them is detrimental to the normal development of the personality. Distinguish between general and professional knowledge, skills and abilities. The first constitute the general culture of a person, the second - his professional readiness. A person acquires knowledge, skills and abilities in the process of education.
The most important component of education is general education. It provides students with knowledge of the fundamentals of the sciences of nature, society and human thinking. The role of deep knowledge grows immeasurably in the period of building communism. On the basis of this knowledge, the formation of a dialectical-materialistic worldview is carried out, as well as the development of the cognitive forces of students.
“An illiterate person stands outside politics,” wrote V. I. Lenin. He spoke about the constant improvement of the level of general education as the basis for the all-round development of man. The line of raising the level of general education is the leading one at all stages of the development of the Soviet educational system.
Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, the significance of science for the development of industry is changing. The level and depth of scientific knowledge is the most important condition for the active participation of young people in the life and work of our society.
The general education that our Soviet school provides for its pupils has a number of significant features. First of all, it most fully and accurately reflects the scientific and practical knowledge of mankind, and is truly comprehensive. It organically combines knowledge about nature, society and human thinking, achieves harmony between humanitarian and natural education, which is equally necessary for a person to perform professional and other social functions.
General education in the Soviet school is also distinguished by the fact that it is an inseparable unity with the polytechnic. The unity of general and polytechnical education provides students with knowledge of the fundamentals of modern production, its economics and organization, and the advantages of our socialist economic system over the capitalist one.
Polytechnization ensures the connection of all education with labor and makes it possible to give the growing person not only broad, truly universal knowledge, but also versatile skills and abilities. General and polytechnic education is the basis for obtaining vocational education, it includes a system of knowledge, skills and abilities in a particular area of ​​work. This is its most important aspect. However, successful work in a particular field of activity requires certain inclinations, personality traits that need to be formed. So, it has long been believed that in order to be successful in teaching, in addition to a clear ideological position and broad erudition, you need to love children, be inquisitive yourself and have a number of other qualities.
Having a broad general education and polytechnic training, a young person gets the opportunity to better determine his place in life, choose a profession, master it more fully and deeper. In the context of the scientific and technological revolution, general education is becoming increasingly important for the successful mastery of a profession. Recent studies show that if at the beginning of the 20th century, elementary literacy (grades II-IV) was sufficient for the successful development of the specialty of a machine operator, and in the 20s. level of IV-VI classes, today education in the volume of VIII-X classes is necessary. This shows that today universal secondary education is a necessary condition for the successful fulfillment by a young person of his social functions.
But vocational education not only builds on the foundations of general and polytechnic education, it, in turn, enriches them. Elements of vocational training are included in polytechnic education, they ensure the vitality of polytechnic knowledge, the connection of polytechnic education with productive labor.
With the transition to universal secondary education in our country, more and more favorable conditions are being created for the close connection of general, polytechnical and vocational education in various types of schools.
General and polytechnical education carried out in the USSR and other socialist countries and its theory represent a qualitatively new stage in the development of public education and world pedagogical thought.
Its qualitative originality lies in the fact that it is:
the most important instrument for creating a new social order, free from the exploitation of man by man;
one of the means of eliminating the opposition between mental and physical labor;
a means of arming students with truly scientific knowledge that forms a scientific picture of the world and a scientific worldview;
the basis for educating the entire rising generation in the spirit of the new, communist morality.
General and polytechnic education makes it possible to overcome the separation of knowledge from life and work, the simplification inherent in the bourgeois school, and to ensure the conscious assimilation of systematic knowledge by students of the Soviet school on the basis of close connection with life, the activation of their cognitive abilities and creative potentials.

CURRICULUM, CURRICULUM, TEXTBOOKS

The content of school education is expressed in curricula, curricula and textbooks.
The curriculum of the Soviet school is a state document that determines the composition of academic subjects, the order and sequence of their study by year of study, the number of lessons assigned to each subject (per year and academic week), and also establishes the structure of the academic year.
Different countries have developed different principles for constructing curricula. The Soviet school and the schools of the socialist countries work according to a subject curriculum; in a number of other countries, for example, in the USA, complex plans are used along with the subject ones.
Curricula are developed in accordance with the curriculum. The curriculum is a state document that defines the content of the subject, the system and scope of knowledge, skills and abilities for each year of study, the order and sequence of studying this subject.
The curriculum and program of the Soviet school are developed and approved by the Ministry of Education of the USSR and the Union Republics and are mandatory for the school. They cannot be changed by the teacher, school leaders or local public education authorities.
There are two ways of constructing a program: concentric and linear. With the concentric construction of an educational subject, the material to be mastered is repeated at a higher theoretical level. Such an arrangement of educational material is opposed to a linear (radial) one, in which each section of the training course is presented with the degree of detail and depth that is dictated by the tasks of teaching without returning to it at the next stages of training.
The concentric method is also the basis for the construction of elementary education. In the primary grades, children are given knowledge, skills and abilities that prepare them for systematic and deeper learning in the basics of science.
One of the immediate tasks of further improvement of the content of education will be the development of programs constructed according to a linear method. Such a program would allow for a more compact arrangement of educational material and save time spent on periodic return to the material being studied. Consistent implementation of universal secondary education in our country will be an important prerequisite for the successful solution of this problem.
On the basis of the curriculum and program for each subject, textbooks are compiled, in which the content of the subject is presented in a certain system.
Taking into account the advanced traditions of Russian pedagogy in Soviet pedagogy, a coherent theory of the construction of a textbook has developed, and the main didactic requirements for it have been formulated.
1. The textbook material must correspond to the modern level of science and contribute to the formation of the communist worldview of students.
2. The content of the textbook, the arrangement of chapters is built taking into account the program in this subject. Of great importance is the internal integrity of the chapters, each of them should be a complete step in the system of knowledge on the subject.
3. The presentation of the material in the textbook is logical and harmonious. Each most significant section or chapter of the textbook ends with questions or assignments.
4. An important requirement for a textbook is the strict adherence to the principle of connection between theory and practice. Such a construction of the textbook makes it possible to overcome formalism in teaching, prompts students to consciously master the educational material. When presenting educational material, it is useful to use a variety of techniques that make students compare, trace the development of a particular phenomenon, that is, actively think.
5. All definitions, conclusions, formulations to be memorized are highlighted in textbooks. Primary school textbooks also contain direct instructions to students, for example, of this type: read and memorize, copy in a notebook, read and tell your comrades at the assembly, etc.
6. Design is equally important. Textbooks should be well designed, provided with thoughtful and carefully selected illustrations. Well-chosen expressive illustrations enhance the cognitive and educational functions of the text. The system of hygienic requirements for textbooks is also of great importance: the correct dosage of educational material, clarity of printing, font sizes, etc.
Under the influence of an increasingly complex system of education, the rejection of dogmatic teaching methods, and the increase in the developmental and educative value of the educational process, significant changes are taking place both in the construction of textbooks and in the very theory of the textbook.
The best modern textbooks organically combine closely related elements of the textbook itself (a systematic presentation of the fundamentals of science), a workbook, a notebook (questions, tasks), a collection of educational materials (documents, literary texts) and, finally, a reference book (terminological dictionaries, tables, etc.). .).
The Prosveshchenie Publishing House simultaneously develops and publishes educational and methodological complexes consisting of a textbook, various means for it (plates, maps, etc.), manuals for teachers, which set out the methodological foundations and recommendations on the organization of the educational process according to current programs and textbooks.
The presence of educational and methodological complexes allows you to convey to each teacher modern ideas in the field of psychology and pedagogy and implement them in the educational process of the school.
In accordance with the new Constitution of the USSR, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a resolution "On the transition to the free use of textbooks for students in general education schools." It is envisaged to carry out the transition to the free use of textbooks during 1978-1983. Full edition textbooks will be published once every 4 years, followed by additional printing of the required number of textbooks.
It was decided to publish the primer every year and leave it to first-graders as a memory of the first steps of their studies. This decision was preceded by many years of free use of textbooks in a number of republics and regions of our country. In the schools of the Estonian SSR, for example, each textbook has a sticker with an appeal calling on schoolchildren to treat the textbook with care, the names of those who used the textbook are also indicated there, and marks are given for the safety of the book. Such appeals are now in all published textbooks and in the RSFSR.
The regulation on the free use of textbooks is an important step towards the implementation of universal secondary education. It will contribute to further raising the level of teaching and educational work of the school, fostering a careful attitude to the book.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTING EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

What is the guideline in determining the content of education? Can it be set arbitrarily? To answer these questions, it is necessary to turn to the theory of constructing the content of education.
The content of school education in any society depends entirely on the goal of education and is a concrete expression of this goal. Changing the purpose of education entails a restructuring of the content of education.
In bourgeois pedagogy, two directions in the theory of education developed, on the basis of which the principles for selecting educational subjects were formulated. The first direction recommended paying attention not to the acquisition of knowledge, but to the development of students' abilities, thinking, imagination, memory. It has received in the history of pedagogy the name of the theory of formal education.
Representatives of this theory divided subjects into two groups: the first group included languages, especially ancient ones, literature, mathematics, grammar of new languages; to the second - biology, geography, physics, chemistry, etc. Preference was given to the first group of subjects. In accordance with the theory of formal education, the curricula of classical gymnasiums in Russia, Germany and a number of other countries were built.
However, such a school could not meet the needs of developing capitalism. Therefore, at the end of the XVIII century. the theory of material education is being formed, which, as the main criterion for selecting the content of education, put forward the degree of its usefulness, suitability for the life of a capitalist society. The theory of material education formed the basis for constructing the curricula of real schools and other educational institutions of this type. In the curricula, a large place was given to mathematics, physics, chemistry, new foreign languages, and commercial business.
There was no fundamental difference between these theories, both of them reflected the interests of the ruling classes, and educational institutions created on their basis, as a rule, served the children of the nobility and the bourgeoisie. Both theories were subjected to justified criticism by K. D. Ushinsky, N. G. Chernyshevsky, and N. A. Dobrolyubov for being one-sided. They believed that the school should enrich the young person with knowledge and promote his versatile development.
Despite the expansion of education in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the bourgeoisie seeks to limit the level of knowledge for the majority of adolescents. The school was not interested in giving students a wide range of knowledge. Comprehensive curricula and programs that emerged in the United States were built around separate themes-complexes. At the first steps of learning, topics are selected that are close to the child's experience (for example, "Labor", "Nature"). Then the range of these topics gradually expands and becomes more complex. In connection with the work on the topic, children learn to write, read, count. Some topics for study are suggested by the children themselves. Comprehensive curricula and programs give children fragmentary, non-systematic knowledge. Their goal is to adapt children's knowledge to different life situations. Such knowledge cannot contribute to the versatile development of the individual.
Recently, in a number of capitalist countries, theories advocating the exclusion of the humanities from school curricula and the expansion of the scope of natural and technical subjects have become widespread. Such a restructuring is justified by its supporters by the need to prepare the rising generations for life in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution. Anarchist demands for excessive humanitarization of education are no less common in Western countries. These requirements are substantiated by concern for the imaginary "freedom of the individual" of a growing person. In fact, both approaches deny the idea of ​​all-round development and pour water on the mill of the bourgeoisie, which is striving with all its might to limit the content of the education of the working people, to narrow its scope.
In the Soviet school there is complete harmony between the goal of communist education and the content of education. From the first steps of the teaching, conditions are created for mastering the system of knowledge, for developing the principles of the communist worldview. The curriculum creates the prerequisites for the moral, labor, physical and aesthetic education of students.
An equally important criterion that determines the content of education is its compliance with the modern level of development of science.
What should be the content of school education so that it gives the younger generation the opportunity to understand modern science? This question has always attracted the attention of scientists and teachers. In connection with scientific and technological progress, it becomes even more acute. The Soviet state is deeply interested in seeing the school prepare the rising generation as successfully as possible to master the heights of scientific knowledge.
Scientific ideas, theories, methods are not just mechanically included in the content of educational subjects. They are subject to didactic processing.
Didactics determines how to prepare students for the perception of a particular material, outlines the order and sequence of its location in the subject, as well as the most effective ways for students to study the material. In other words, didactics selects educational material, taking into account the possibilities of mastering it by students of a certain age. Therefore, taking into account the age characteristics of students is also an important criterion for the selection and construction of the content of education.

Since 1970, the school has been working according to a modified curriculum, programs and textbooks, which was the result of a long scientific and experimental work carried out by teams of the USSR Academy of Sciences, academies of pedagogical and medical sciences, many pedagogical institutes and universities in close contact with advanced teams of teachers.
The current curriculum has introduced some structural changes to the work of the school. Initial training is limited to three years. The systematic study of the foundations of sciences begins with the fourth grade. From the 7th grade, when the educational interests of schoolchildren are intensively differentiated, extracurricular activities are introduced. Their goal is to deepen students' knowledge in the chosen direction and thereby increase their interest in learning in general.
Positively assessing the work done in recent years, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR recommend making some changes to curricula, programs and textbooks so that they contain the basics of the relevant sciences to the required extent, ensure the polytechnical, labor and educational orientation of the subjects studied, and their accessibility. , internal continuity and logical consistency at all levels of education. The Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR recognized the need to relieve curricula and textbooks from complicated and secondary material and proposed to establish the following workload for schoolchildren by 1980: in grades I-III - 24 hours, in grade IV - 27 hours, in grades V-VII classes - 29 hours, in class VIII - 30 hours, in classes IX-X (XI) - 32 hours a week. It is recommended to streamline the conduct of extracurricular activities, keeping them in the amount provided for by the current standard curriculum (Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the further improvement of education, education of students in general education schools and their preparation for work").
In order to strengthen the labor training of students in grades IX-X (XI), the resolution provides for increasing the time for labor training in these grades from two to four hours a week.
Work to improve the content of education will be carried out in such a way that the acquisition of labor skills, labor hardening is programmed at school with the same sequence as the gradual acquisition of knowledge in academic subjects. Knowledge and work training in the new curricula, programs and textbooks should be more and more organically combined.
The main features of the content of primary education. The general restructuring of the content of education forced pedagogy and psychology to take a new approach to determining the place and significance of the initial link in education, the nature and content of the work of the primary school classes. This manifested itself primarily in raising the theoretical level of primary education as a basis for the systematic study of the foundations of science in the middle and senior levels of school. Such a construction of elementary education ensures the creation in children of a wider range of ideas about the life of our society, about the outstanding achievements of science and technology. In the construction of curricula and programs, a closer connection has been established between the issues being studied. The teaching material is structured in such a way that there is no need to relearn it in subsequent classes.
Taking into account the traditions of Russian progressive pedagogy, Soviet didactics considers the Russian (native) language to be the most important educational subject. It is the basis of general education and the communist upbringing of children. Programs in the native language put forward a wide range of tasks that must be solved in the process of learning it. The most important of them is the successful teaching of 1st grade students to read and write. How fully this task is solved, how the process of teaching literacy is built, depends not only on the acquisition of reading, the native language, but also on the formation of the personality of a growing person.
The literacy period covers the first half of the year. Students of the Russian school complete alphabetical reading at an average speed of 20-25 words per minute, the level of meaningfulness and expressiveness of reading increases. For children who know letters and can read, a textbook for additional reading "Companion of the primer" has been created. The Russian language program organically combines theoretical and applied tasks, educational and educational aspects. The program aims to teach children to read, speak and write meaningfully, to contribute to the enrichment of students' speech, to develop children's interest in reading, to promote mental development, to form and enrich children's ideas about the surrounding reality. The programs give a great deal of attention to equipping children with theoretical knowledge of the Russian (native) language, as well as developing the skills and abilities to use written and oral speech. Moreover, we are not talking about a simple increase in the volume of theoretical material, but about such a study of it that would correspond to modern data in the science of language, exemplary speech practice. The lessons of the Russian (native) language, in accordance with the long tradition of the Russian and Soviet schools, should also become lessons in patriotism, the education of civic qualities of the individual.
Significant changes have been made to the formulation of reading and speech development. They are associated with a departure from the system of explanatory reading. Reading in the elementary grades is more closely related to literary reading in the middle school. This is reflected both in the selection of material and in the gradual approach to solving more complex problems of the organization of education itself. An integral part of the training sessions is the development of a coherent system of extracurricular reading in grades I-III. All these measures are designed to prepare children for independent work with the work, to instill in the child a love of reading, to help in understanding the world around them.
For the first time in the history of primary education, a new subject was introduced in our school - mathematics. It is new not only in name but also in content. The Mathematics program combines the elements of geometry and algebraic propaedeutics around the main course of arithmetic. In this way, it is possible to strengthen the propaedeutic significance of studying mathematics in the primary grades, to eliminate some of the previously existing barriers in the study of mathematics (arithmetic, algebra, geometry) and to achieve a general increase in the level of mathematical culture of schoolchildren, as well as a more intensive intellectual development of students. From the very beginning of training, the program aims the teacher not only at developing students' computational skills, but also at familiarizing them with the necessary properties of the natural series of numbers, as well as with the properties of arithmetic operations and the relationships between these operations.
Teachers develop children's interest in nature, equip them with elementary knowledge about the most important natural phenomena, which will later become the basis for studying biology and geography.
Natural history material is singled out as an independent academic subject. The introduction of natural history from grade II allows students to study natural phenomena more fully and with greater cognitive activity (through experiments, observations), to establish their relationship. Natural science also helps to solve a number of educational tasks: to arouse in students a love for nature, the desire to protect it and increase its wealth. In the construction of the initial course of natural history, the seasonal and local history principles are implemented.
An integral part of primary education is the labor preparation of students. The program of labor training outlines the solution of a wide range of tasks. It consists of two sections: technical and agricultural labor. Students receive tasks on technical modeling and agricultural experimentation. All this is an important prerequisite for educating students in a creative attitude to work.
Of great importance in the implementation of the comprehensive education of students are singing and music, fine arts, as well as physical education.
In connection with the general adjustment of curricula and programs outlined by the resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR, further improvement of labor training programs will be carried out. They envisage a wider involvement of students in socially useful work than before.
The greatness of the work of the Soviet people should be much more fully shown in the programs in general education subjects. These measures will allow our school to more successfully solve the problems of labor education of students in the middle and senior classes.

Questions and tasks

1. What problems does Soviet didactics explore?
2. What should be understood as the content of education?
3. On the basis of what requirements is the content of education in the Soviet school based? What is the relationship between general and vocational education?
4. How did V. I. Lenin define the essence, tasks and ways of polytechnic education in the Soviet school? (According to the works "Tasks of Youth Unions" and "On Polytechnic Education".)
5. Why is polytechnic education necessary in the Soviet school? How is it different from vocational education?
6. In what documents is the content of education implemented?
7. Read through the reader with the curricula of pre-revolutionary Russia and some capitalist countries and compare them with the curriculum of the Soviet school. What is the advantage of the curriculum of the Soviet school?
8. Get acquainted with the program for one of the subjects and highlight its educational and educational opportunities.
9. Get acquainted with one of the textbooks of the primary (eight-year) school and give an analysis of it, taking into account the pedagogical requirements for the textbook.
10. In what directions will the curriculum, curricula and textbooks be improved on the basis of the resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On the further improvement of education, education of students in general education schools and their preparation for work"?

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as a rule, it includes 3 parts: the schedule of the educational process - periods of theoretical classes, educational and industrial practice, examination (or laboratory-examination) sessions, thesis (or diploma design), vacations and their alternation during the entire period of study; summary data on the time budget - the total duration of each period of the educational process by year and for the entire period of study; plan of the educational process - a list of compulsory, alternative and optional disciplines, indicating the volume of each of them in academic hours and the distribution of these hours by week, semester, academic year, the timing of exams, tests and term papers (projects) and the number of hours allocated for lectures , seminars, laboratory work and exercises in each subject (in the 3rd part Syllabus specializations can be indicated with the corresponding lists of disciplines studied).

In the USSR and other socialist countries Syllabus, as a rule, uniform for educational institutions of the same type. It is allowed to have individual Syllabus only to large universities (for example, Moscow, Leningrad, Novosibirsk, Kyiv and a number of other universities, Bauman Moscow State Technical University), where generally recognized scientific and pedagogical schools have developed. Continuity Syllabus general education, secondary specialized and higher schools guarantees a single amount of knowledge and equal opportunities for graduates to continue their education at the next level school. Syllabus owls. schools are built in such a way as to ensure communist education and the all-round development of students, prepare them for life and work, and develop the need for continuing education throughout their entire working life. AT Syllabus the necessary correlation of humanitarian and natural science disciplines, the combination of theoretical training with practice is provided. The sequence of studying subjects provided for Syllabus is aimed at establishing objectively existing links and dependencies between them. The amount of time allocated for the study of individual subjects is determined by their significance in the education system of a given level, educational and educational tasks, the volume of the course, the ratio of theoretical material and practical work in it; the volume and nature of the necessary skills and abilities are also taken into account. The content of education defined Syllabus, specified in curricula, textbooks, teaching aids.

In a number of capitalist countries, the general education school does not have unified Syllabus Lack of continuity in Syllabus at various levels of education, a greater amount of knowledge given in privileged educational institutions (for example, in Great Britain, the Federal Republic of Germany) opens wide access to higher education only to children of the propertied classes. In the USA, even in the elementary (compulsory for all) school there are no uniform Syllabus- each state develops them independently.

A. I. Bogomolov.

Article about the word Syllabus" in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia has been read 17735 times

Syllabus- This is a document that determines the composition of subjects, the sequence of their study and the total amount of time allocated for this.

What data should be in the curriculum

If we mean a general education secondary school, then the following data are defined in its curriculum: 1) a complete list (list) of subjects by year of study; 2) the number of hours (lessons) allocated to each subject per week, academic year and for all years of study, for example, in the native language, mathematics, physical education, etc.; 3) periods of industrial practice, camp fees; 4) the duration of academic quarters and vacations.
The curriculum of secondary specialized and higher educational institutions determines the number of hours not per week, but per semester and for the entire period of study (4-6 years). It specifies the types of classes in academic subjects: the number of lectures, seminars, practical and laboratory classes, workshops. The academic subjects submitted for tests and exams in each semester, different types of practice (industrial, archaeological, pedagogical, folklore, in medical institutions, etc.) are indicated.
The curriculum thus streamlines the structure of the academic year and determines the general order of classes.

A bit about legal issues

Traditionally, in textbooks on pedagogy, the curriculum was called a state document. Recently, the authors have avoided calling it that, although the state nature of the curriculum is retained for state educational institutions. Let us draw the attention of the reader: it is preserved, but not exhausted! We will talk about this in more detail later. Along with state educational institutions, non-state educational institutions (public, private, etc.) now exist. Consequently, the curricula there are not state curricula, although they take into account state educational standards.
The state, which provides free compulsory education for children and youth in basic school (in Russia - basic) and general education secondary, also determines the standards of education in different types of educational institutions and at all levels (primary, secondary, higher). Therefore, the curriculum as a state document serves as the basis for the formation of the teaching staff in the specialties; how many will be needed for the school in the current academic year, say, philologists and mathematicians, historians and geographers, etc. In turn, the second question from this situation is the calculation of the need for teachers in their specialty, not only in a particular school, but also on the scale of the district, region and even the republic. The problem arises of training teachers of specific specialties in higher and secondary specialized educational institutions, in higher educational institutions and pedagogical colleges. The curricula of general education schools in the Republic are approved by the Ministry of Education.
In connection with the reform of general education schools, curricula have not been stable in recent years in the sense that the subjects and the number of hours allocated to them are updated almost every year. Since the 1998/99 academic year, the curriculum of schools in Belarus, in addition, takes into account that the former 1st grade has become preparatory. A 5-day school week is introduced.

Curriculum in Belarus

Let's talk in more detail about what is typical for the curriculum of general education schools in Belarus in the 1998/99 academic year, what features of the curriculum are not transient and will be taken into account in subsequent years.
The curriculum is called basic. This emphasizes that the subjects included in it form the basis of general education. They are subdivided according to the levels of education: a) for preparatory and I classes; b) for II-IV; c) for V-IX and d) for X-XI classes. In the future, obviously, the curriculum of the preparatory class will become an integral part of primary education.
In addition to ordinary, general educational institutions, there are educational institutions that have the status of a school with in-depth study of certain subjects: a foreign language, mathematics, and others, or at a specialized level. Theatrical schools, as well as those specializing in music and choreography, have been created. They have a different curriculum.
The curriculum also takes into account the language of instruction: Belarusian, Russian or another as a mother tongue. In Belarus it is, for example, Polish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, Tatar, Jewish. The set of subjects in them basically coincides, but differs in the number of hours devoted to the study of a particular language and literature. But at the same time, Belarusian and Russian languages ​​are necessarily studied as state languages. The language of instruction, by law, will always be taken into account in the curricula of all types of comprehensive schools.
Let's go back to the curriculum of the general education school. The content of training and its general focus will be clearer if we refer to the set (list) of subjects for each level of education and the number of hours provided for their study. We emphasize that in all curricula, the basic component is first determined. So, in the preparatory or I and H-IV classes there are 8 of them each. In the V-IX classes - 22; in grades X-XI - 19. The multi-subject nature of the basic component, as well as the continuity of subjects from the lower grades to the older ones, is noteworthy.
The curriculum also contains a school component. It means that some academic subjects, except for the basic ones, are determined and distributed by the decision of the pedagogical or methodological council of the school. For the subjects of the basic component, 5-6 hours per week are provided (depending on the class). The school component makes it possible to additionally provide academic subjects, taking into account the wishes of students, the availability of teaching staff of the relevant specialization and the material and technical base of the school.
The curriculum also determines the maximum teaching load per week per student. Moreover, the older the class, the greater the load. For example, in the V class - 33 hours, in the IX - 38.
The number of hours per week for separate groups of subjects from grades V to IX is determined. The total weekly hours in these classes is 170.5 hours. Of these, Belarusian, Russian languages ​​and literature - 51 hours, a foreign language - 12 hours, mathematics - 24.5 hours, physical culture - 15 hours.
As you can see, the study of languages ​​and literature takes most of the time of the student, in second place is mathematics.
The curriculum included computer science and the "universe" (the world - "Susvet"), world artistic culture, the basics of life safety ("basics of life zhytstsyadzeynasch"); These are new courses. Labor training is provided for 2 hours per week and labor practice from 5 to 8 days for 3-4 hours of work per day.

Comparison of plans of Russia and Belarus

It is of interest how the curricula of general education schools in Belarus and Russia look like. For comparison, we took only grades V-IX, firstly, because of the cumbersomeness of the entire curriculum for a full secondary school; secondly, in both Russia and Belarus, compulsory education now ends in the ninth grade. This level of education in Belarus is called basic, in Russia - basic. Above it, classes X-XI of a complete secondary school are built, providing the graduate with a level of education sufficient for entering a university, and giving this right. Comparing the data of these curricula, one can notice both similarities and differences in them.
1. The total amount of weekly workload for schoolchildren in Belarus is more than in Russia by an average of 5 hours per week in each class. In other words, a Belarusian 5th-9th grader almost every day (except one) learns 1 more lesson. This is due to the obligatory study of two state languages ​​and literature, as well as due to an additional hour of physical education.
2. In both Belarusian and Russian curricula, in addition to compulsory subjects (basic component), there are subjects for students to choose themselves. In Russia, these are the so-called elective subjects, when a student is required to choose a minimum of many offered, for example, 2 out of 6. There are also optional subjects. They are not mandatory, but only for those who wish. Optional content courses cover either additional chapters of the main subject, or a detailed version of some obligatory topic, for example, on the history of the Great Patriotic War; or a special course, which is not in the basic component of the plan.
The subjects of the optional course are determined, first of all, by the wishes of the students themselves and the availability of specialists. They are taught by both school teachers and specialists invited from outside: employees of universities, technical schools, scientific and design institutions, and manufacturing enterprises.
In passing, we note that in the pedagogical literature, including educational, electives are often referred to as a form of classes. But this is illegal. “Elective” does not mean a compulsory lesson, but the opportunity for the student to choose a training course for additional specialization. Optional classes take place in different forms: a lesson, a seminar, a circle, etc. The number of hours for electives is determined by the maximum allowable workload of students per week.
In Belarus, as already mentioned, the curriculum has a school component. His specific subjects are determined by the pedagogical or methodological council of the school. There are no prerequisites for selection. This may be an increased number of lessons in the subjects of the basic component, or there may be independent subjects that take into account national and local (regional) conditions. However, the curricula of Russia also provide for a national-regional component in many subjects. They are not only in mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, computer science. And especially a lot in languages ​​and literature, art, labor training.
3. In the curricula of both countries, more time was devoted to the subjects of the humanities cycle. This is more noticeable in Belarus. So, besides languages ​​and literature, Belarusian schoolchildren study the history of Belarus, general history, the subjects “Man and Society”, “Universe”, “General Artistic Culture”. A total of 21 hours out of 170.5 are allotted for this per week from grades V to IX. In the Russian curriculum, 15 hours are allotted for this.
4. The teaching of art objects stops early: music, fine arts - in grades 7-8, when schoolchildren just begin to get seriously interested in music and drawing (discotheques, numerous amateur musical ensembles, clothing style, etc.). In the future, with the revision of curricula, this gap, hopefully, will be filled.
5. In schools in Belarus, each class is engaged in physical education 3 hours a week, in Russia - 2. This is an undoubted advantage of the Belarusian curriculum compared to the Russian one. Another thing is how it is implemented.
6. The Belarusian curriculum provides for labor practice at the end of the academic year for 5 days, 3-4 hours each. The Russian version does not have it.
7. In our opinion, the curriculum of general secondary schools in Belarus and Russia clearly lacks such subjects as psychology and logic. The humanization and humanitarization of education, the moral and spiritual development of the personality, the formation of its culture of communication, value orientations cannot be imagined without knowledge of psychology. Mass computerization in education, science, production management, commerce, as well as informatization in the same areas of society will be successful if high school graduates master formal and mathematical, and then dialectical logic. Therefore, it should be expected that in the upper grades of secondary school the subjects "psychology" and "logic" will be included in the curriculum as mandatory.
8. In our opinion, the curricula of both Belarus and Russia in the set of subjects do not reflect radical changes in the economic system of the countries, neither of them has subjects in economics. The global deterioration of social ecology, the education of environmental culture among students are poorly taken into account. The same can be said about legal literacy and education of legal culture among students. It may be objected to us that all this is assumed as a principle of instruction in all academic subjects. Of course, this principle should not be abandoned, but this is not enough: special academic subjects are needed at the level of the basic component, and not only as an admission of elective and optional training courses. Otherwise, it may turn out like this, it has already happened with polytechnic education: the principle was there, but there is no polytechnic.
These are some judgments about the curriculum. We repeat: we have touched on the curriculum only in mass general education schools and have not spoken at all about the plans of schools with in-depth study of individual subjects.

Studying programs

The curriculum defines a set (list) of subjects of a particular type of educational institution and takes into account the level of education by grade. But this is a general direction or, more precisely, a general construct of content. It needs to be filled with specific material. To do this, a curriculum is drawn up for each subject. So, if in the plan of Belarus in grades V-IX only the basic component has 22 subjects and 5-6 more - the school component, then there should be so many curricula in each grade! Too much ... The curriculum (from the Greek. programma - announcement, order, prescription) is a document that summarizes the systematized content, the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities to be mastered by students. The material is systematized: divided into sections, topics; established hierarchy (subordination) and the sequence of their study.
The program is approved by the Ministry of Education. So, it is also a state document. Its implementation by the educational institution becomes a mandatory requirement of the relevant authorities and the school administration. According to the degree of its assimilation, students are assessed, transferred to the next class and released from school. At entrance exams to universities and technical schools, applicants' knowledge is also tested in relation to the program: to what extent they master it.
The traditional structure of the program is as follows. An explanatory note is given at the beginning. It formulates the purpose and objectives of teaching students a given subject, its features, the principles of constructing a course, a subject. Then, by sections and topics, the most important concepts, principles, laws of sciences included in the subject, the main facts and conclusions that the student must learn are introduced. Since the curriculum contains many subjects, each of which is studied for more than one year, the program, of course, establishes intra-subject and inter-subject connections in their logical sequence and interdependence. In addition to theoretical material, the program establishes a minimum of practical and laboratory work, excursions, tests. A number of programs also indicate the approximate distribution of hours for the study of individual sections, topics. Criteria for marks are also proposed: what knowledge, skills and abilities deserve the corresponding points. This standard directs the teacher to a uniform assessment of the level of knowledge of students in different classes and schools.
The program is the basis for the teacher in the long-term planning of training sessions for the academic year, quarter, as well as in the preparation of a system (block) of lessons and regular classes. It is the program that sets the system of educational content and the minimum amount of knowledge, skills and abilities.
Traditionally, there are two principles for constructing programs: linear and concentric. With a linear construction of the content of educational material, without returning to what was previously studied (it is assumed that students already know what they have learned), topic after topic is located. In particular, this applies to such subjects as physics, chemistry; often math. With a linear arrangement of the material, its study is faster than with a concentric one. But the difficulty here is as follows: if any topic is not mastered by the student, then further advancement will be impossible, because everything that follows is built on the previous one, follows from it.
With a concentric arrangement of the program, the same content is repeated over time, returning to previously studied material. On a new round, the content expands and deepens. Take, for example, the literary theme of A.S. Pushkin. Already younger schoolchildren get acquainted with his poems (read, memorize). To the topic of A.S. Pushkin returned in middle and high school. And at the same time, the volume of knowledge and the depth of aesthetic, literary and historical analysis of the poet's work are increasing each time.
The concentric principle of building a program has a positive side in that the material is better absorbed and retained in memory longer, since repetition prevents forgetting. The disadvantage of this principle is that students think that they already know this material and therefore many do not have an interest in novelty. With the concentric construction of the program, the pace of studying the full course slows down.
The compilers of programs cannot refuse the concentric principle of its construction, especially for primary classes. Much cannot be given to younger students in a linear fashion; one has to inevitably repeat with the expansion and deepening of the new content of a previously studied topic.
In more detail, study programs are studied in the course of teaching methods of private academic disciplines. We have presented the most general provisions.
The curriculum is then expanded into textbooks. A textbook is a book for pupils (and students) that contains systematized material that makes up the detailed specific content of the subject. It provides the basics of scientific knowledge at the modern level to the extent that is provided for by the curriculum. In the textbook, the material is presented in chapters, paragraphs, topics. To facilitate the assimilation of the material, illustrations are given: drawings, drawings, maps, diagrams, plans, graphs, tables. In addition to informative material, the textbook contains questions and tasks designed to help the student comprehend and systematize knowledge; sometimes literature for self-education is indicated.
Readers, collections of tasks, exercises, atlases on geography, history, human anatomy, dictionaries, reference books serve as educational purposes. In recent years, to help students, in addition to textbooks, educational dia-, films, and video films have been produced that can be used both in class and at home. They significantly complement the material of textbooks, make its content visual, dynamic, concentrated.

During the Soviet period (1917-1991), school reforms took place under

direct leadership of the party and government. Development

The school system was strictly regulated by party and government regulations. The task of restructuring the education system was put forward from the very first days of Soviet power. In the politics of the Bolsheviks, the school was given a special place as a means of propagating Bolshevik ideas and communist ideology. The concept of the new school, the goals and objectives of school education were formulated in a number of documents: "Appeal of the People's Commissar for Education" (1917), "Basic Principles of the Unified Labor School" (1918), "Regulations on the Unified Labor School of the RSFSR" (1918). The various types of schools in pre-revolutionary Russia were to be replaced by a new model of school education - a unified labor school, which included two stages: 5 years and 4 years. The abolition of the curriculum by the Bolsheviks, the abolition of the class-lesson system and marks (1918) could not but lead to the destabilization of the work of the school. The study of languages ​​was reduced to a minimum, but the time devoted to mathematics and science increased. Among the leaders of the People's Commissariat of Education (N.K. Krupskaya, A.V. Lunacharsky, etc.), the ideas of American pedagogy (the project method, the Dalton Plan), which served as the basis for the restructuring of the school, were very popular. Encouraged to conduct social competition among students.

The formation of the new school was accompanied by discussions, meetings on education, which took the period from 1919 to the end of the 20s. The discussions focused on the structure of the school, its levels, types of educational institutions, and the content of school education. In the first decades after October, the school, as an institution of education, enters a period of cardinal reform. The work on the reorganization of the school was headed by the People's Commissariat of Education (1917), the theoretical problems of school education are being developed by the scientific and pedagogical section of the State Academic Council (SUS). The priority task is to construct a new content of education, highlight and select its leading ideas, and determine its structure. Search in this direction often goes through trial and error. The turning point came only in 1923 with the introduction into practice of the school of the comprehensive programs of the GUS, the ideological basis of which was Marxism and the Bolshevik interpretation of its ideas. The educational material was not built on subjects, but was concentrated around three main topics: nature, labor, society. The GUS programs were the first attempt to create a real program for the Soviet school. The introduction of integrated programs immediately revealed their shortcomings: lack of system, lack of a solid assimilation of knowledge, wasteful use of study time. The idea of ​​a comprehensive design of the content of secondary education did not justify itself: the school was not ready for innovation, the teachers in their mass did not accept the complex system.

In the 20s. 20th century An important area of ​​reform is the work of experimental institutions, in which the search for new curricula, forms and methods of educational and educational work was carried out. Pedagogical science is on the rise. A positive attitude towards innovations, attention to foreign experience, involvement of reputable scientists in the development of documents - all this helps to actively experiment in the field of education and upbringing.

In the 30s. in the USSR, a radical reorganization of the school system is being carried out. The Decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the Structure of Primary and Secondary Schools in the USSR” (1934) determined the unified structure of school education: primary school (4 years) + incomplete secondary school (4 + 3), complete secondary school (4 + 3 + 3 ). This model, with minor amendments, lasted until the 80s. XX century.

In 1934, subject-based education, standard programs and textbooks, a unified class schedule, and a system of marks were introduced in schools. There is a return to the old principles, the conservative traditions of the pre-revolutionary school are being revived. The director again becomes the head of the school, and the pedagogical council performs the role of an advisory body with him. According to the new Internal Regulations, the school allowed the exclusion of students from its walls. Uniform school uniforms are becoming mandatory again. Internal rules are being streamlined: the duration of lessons and the intervals between them, the procedure for conducting transfer and final exams. One cannot but agree with V.I. Strazhev, who notes that 17 years after the October Revolution, the pre-revolutionary gymnasium triumphed again, supported by I.V. Stalin. This return to pre-revolutionary traditions was also observed in subsequent years: the restoration of awards for academic excellence in the form of gold and silver medals, the regulation of the activities, rights and obligations of pedagogical councils, parental committees.

Experts distinguish two main periods in the evolution of the Soviet school: rise (mid-40s - late 50s) and decline (70s - late 80s).

In the first period, the development of the Soviet school was ascending. According to the general opinion, the Soviet education system of the 50s. its efficiency was considered one of the best in the world. It was distinguished by originality, pragmatism, post-Stalin conscious discipline, and the precise work of all structures. However, by the end of the 1950s it became clear that profound changes were needed.

In 1958, the “Law on strengthening the connection between school and life and on the further development of the system of public education in the USSR” was issued, which marked the beginning of a new education reform, which was carried out along the lines of integrating general and vocational education. In parallel, the task of structural restructuring of the school was being solved. The period of compulsory education was increased from seven to eight years. The secondary school became eleven years old and received a new name "general educational polytechnic labor secondary school with industrial activity." The main emphasis in the preparation of students was placed on labor training, the volume of which increased to 15.3% of the time in the eight-year school. In the senior classes (9-11) a third of the study time was devoted to general technical academic disciplines and participation in productive work. It was planned that students would work twice a week in training workshops, at factories, factories, agricultural production, and together with a matriculation certificate they would receive certificates of working qualifications.

In addition to structural reorganization and the introduction of primary vocational training in schools, it was planned to expand the network of preschool education and upbringing, create boarding schools in rural areas, and overcome repetition.

By the 1961/62 academic year, the reorganization of 7-year schools into 8-year schools was completed. However, structural transformation did not solve school problems. In the early 60s. it became obvious that the objectives of the reform were unrealistic and impossible under the conditions of that time: schools and societies were not ready for primary vocational training of students. The results of entrance examinations recorded a sharp decline in the level of general education, primarily humanitarian training of students, the prestige of education in society was steadily declining. In the summer of 1964, a decision was made to return from the 1966/67 academic year to a ten-year school. Soon, vocational training at school was canceled, and the academic discipline "Labor" reappeared in the school schedule.

During the 50-80s. 20th century Several unsuccessful attempts were made to modernize the school. Domestic experts unanimously agree that all reform attempts were initially doomed to failure. Each successive reform led to the replication of mistakes and further exacerbation of problems. From the point of view of E.D. Dneprov, the ineffectiveness, and often the ineffectiveness of the ongoing reforms is explained by the fact that they set goals for the school that were either obviously unrealizable at this historical stage, or unusual for it. P.G. Shchedrovitsky sees the reasons for the failure of school reforms in the fact that education always performs the socio-cultural function of preserving and reproducing the existing social structure. An attempt to reform the education system in the country in isolation from the entire social organism, the existing system of production and social relations, is doomed to failure from the outset. Practically all reforms were distinguished by ill-conceivedness, weak scientific validity, unsatisfactory level of training, haste in implementation, race for coverage rates, lack of necessary financial and staffing. Initially set by the party and the government, the high pace of reform, the specific deadlines for implementation, were obviously unfeasible.

In the 70s. 20th century the decline of the Soviet school begins, the main reason for which is the departure from pragmatism to projecting, setting unrealistic tasks and the impossibility of solving them. In an effort to solve the tasks set by the party and the government, the school tried to work in the same mode. Specialized schools were opened, individual pedagogical teams and teachers developed and implemented their own systems of work. But, as scholars-researchers of the Soviet period of reform (E.D. Dneprov, V.A. Kovanov, V.I. Strazhev and others) rightly point out, these oases of advanced pedagogical experience could not significantly affect the overall situation in Soviet education. A situation was created in which the country knew the names of innovative teachers, was familiar with their developments, but best practices existed on their own, in isolation from mass practice.

In the 80s. 20th century the crisis of the Soviet school began to speak openly. Never before has the prestige of the school in society fallen so disastrously low. She was criticized from all sides and at all levels. The object of criticism was the incompetence of the governing bodies, percentage mania, bureaucracy, over-centralization in management and financing, the focus on the formation of a given type of personality, ignoring the individuality of the student, the low professional level of teachers, the lack of state funding and logistics. The decline experienced by the school was akin to the general situation in the country. The command-administrative principle of school management, its unification and nationalization led to the separation of the national school from the processes in line with which the world school system was developing. In the 80s. the potential of the Soviet general education system was exhausted. In 1983, at the June 11 lenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, the idea was expressed that it was necessary to reform the school. In 1984, the draft reform was published and, after discussion (3 months), was taken as the basis for a document on titled "Basic Directions reform of the general education school”. In the course of the 1984 reform, it was proposed to implement a set of measures:

Changing the terms of schooling (introduction of 11 summer schools) and the structure of school education (4+5+2).

Providing students in grades 8-11 with the opportunity to specialize in such disciplines as physics, mathematics, chemistry, biology, and the humanities.

The introduction of a single type of vocational technical school: vocational schools based on the merger of general education and vocational training.

Ordering the teaching load of students: 1 class. - 20 hours; 2 cells - 22; 3-4 cells -24; 5-8 cells-31; 9-11 cells - 31 hours.

Reducing the class size to 30 students (grades 1-9) and to 25 (grades 10-11).

Improvement of the position and increase of remuneration of teachers .

Conceived in ministerial offices, unprepared reform

started to wobble almost immediately. The reform was not worked out, was conceived and implemented in a hurry. It lacked a clear concept, strategy, implementation mechanisms. The reform provided for the professionalization of the secondary school, the merger of general and vocational education, the establishment of a new educational institution of the vocational school - a secondary vocational school. As time has shown, many of the objectives of the reform were simply erroneous.

It was so obvious that it was recognized from the high stands. During the Plenums of the Central Committee of the CPSU 1986-1987. There has been repeated criticism of the reform. In 1988, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education, the State Committee for Public Education were merged into the State Committee for Public Education of the USSR.

By 1986, the beginning of a public discussion about the future of the school. In the "Teacher's newspaper" (1986-1988), a number of publications appear devoted to finding ways to update the school, signed by innovative teachers V.F. Shatalov, S.N. Lysenkova, Sh.A. Amonashvili, E.N. Ilyin, M.P. Shchetinin and others. The speeches of innovative teachers at meetings before the pedagogical community, in the press caused a great public outcry and marked the emergence of a new direction in Soviet pedagogy, known as "pedagogy of cooperation." It was this group of teachers, who tested new teaching methods and proved their effectiveness, that became the catalyst for the social and pedagogical movement to search for the concept of school development in the new socio-economic conditions. The rejection of new ideas by official pedagogy only spurred public interest. In the wake of the social and pedagogical movement, creative associations of teachers and author's schools were greatly developed. In order to prepare the reform, independent research teams were created: the APS of the USSR and the VNIK "School", which was headed by E.D. Dneprov (later Minister of Education of the Russian Federation, I 990-1992)

In 1988, the All-Union Conference of Public Education Workers was held in Moscow, during which the proposals of the VNIK "School" on school reform received support. In September 1989, the State Committee for Public Education of the USSR approved a new school curriculum, in which the humanitarian component was significantly strengthened (from 41 to 50%). During this period, a departure from the unified model of school education began. By 1989, the first gymnasiums and lyceums appeared in the USSR.

In the BSSR, the first lyceum was established in 1990 (a lyceum at the Belarusian State University). Created on the basis of specialized schools, they were intended for in-depth study of subjects and were mainly of a humanitarian nature. From this period, the polarization of educational institutions began in the education system: along with the mass school, schools with in-depth study of subjects, gymnasiums, and lyceums began to operate in the education system.

With the collapse of the USSR in the 90s. 20th century profound transformational processes are taking place in the post-Soviet educational space. The private sector of education is developing. The curricula of the secondary general education school are being revised. They have three components: federal, regional and school. Legislative activity in the field of education is being activated, documents and laws reflecting the new realities are being adopted. An important direction of school policy is the activity of experimental schools, on the basis of which new school models and educational technologies are tested, attempts are made to transfer the experience of foreign schools to Russian soil (Waldorf School, Jena Plan, ) Dalton plan, etc.). In recent years, the Russian education system has increasingly gravitated towards the American educational model, which is regarded as a role model.

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